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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BUREAU OF PUBLIC RO

Public Roads

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( — WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1918

Owing to the necessarily limited edition of this publication
it will be impossible to distribute it free to any persons or insti-
tutions other than State and county officials actually engaged
in the planning or construction of highways, instructors in high-
way engineering, periodicals upon an exchange basis, and Members
of both houses of Congress. Others desiring to obtain PUBLIC
ROADS can do so by sending 15 cents for each number or $1.50
for annual subscription to the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

It is the desire of the Bureau of Public Roads and the Gov-
ernment Printing Office to issue PUBLIC ROADS regularly each
month, but it must be borne in mind by the readers that in
these war times the tremendous volume of emergency printing
takes precedence in the Printing Office and due allowance be
made for delays.

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

PUBLIC ROADS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Page
Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridge Design Standard Sizes of Crushed Stone from the
Based on) Pull Sized Tests: 22. te. .7--- 3 Standpoint of the Producer__-..-.-.----- 17
By A. T. Goldbeck. By R. W. Scherer.
co 4 _ | ‘Federal Aid Projects im July ___------.---- 20
Me tibeine local StOnGhe sce acl cee eese iad 8. | ; ji
hy Geonye Maliada, | American Red Cross a Builder of Roads and
Downesneltal vise aa J eed Oo
Maintaining Earth Roads with Oil is
D St. rad ee ae oe a aa € 5 = TE ye ‘ Le} 99
By Thos, H. MacDonald. Some State Highway Builders_._-......-.-. 22

State Highway Management, Control and

| Brocedurogets= alee eee. ial. ee:
By M..O. Eldridge, G. G. Clark, and A. L. Luedke.,

Tests of Automobile Number Tags- - --- - -- 1
By James P, Nash.

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1918 ,

BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

Logan Waller Page . . . . Dihirector J. E. Pennybacker . Chief of Management
P. St. J. Wilson . . . Chief Engineer Jules L. Goldberg . Chief, Editorial Division

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB BRIDGE
DESIGN BASED ON FULL SIZED TESTS

By A. T. GOLDBECK, Engineer of Tests, Bureau of Public Roads.

HE past winter has witnessed the failure of
many types of road surfaces due to the
extremely heavy truck loads they have had

to carry. Such loads, except for the occasional
traction engine and roller, were unheard of when
these roads were built, and adequate provision
for them was not made in their design. Highway
bridges in general have fared somewhat better than
the road surfacing, but when we see the inadequacy
of the roads to carry heavy loads we should not be
surprised at the very natural queries, ‘‘What about
the bridges?” ‘How long will they continue to
carry these increasingly heavy loads, and what is the
greatest load they can safely carry in the future?”
The present discussion will treat of a particular
phase of these questions, that dealing with reinforced
concrete slab bridges.

The ability of wide, thin slabs to support heavy
concentrated loads, and the proper procedure in their
design were matters of great uncertainty up to a
few years ago, when several laboratories almost
simultaneously investigated the subject. Now, how-
ever, sufficient tests on full size slabs are available
to permit reliable calculations being made. Many
tests have been carried on by the Bureau of Public
Roads, by the University of Illinois, and the Ohio
State University, to investigate how to design a
slab subjected to concentrated loads. Some of
these tests will be described briefly, and practical
rules for applying results will be given.

AIM OF TESTS.

A thin, flat slab when loaded with a concentrated
load differs from a narrow beam in that only part
of the slab width is effective in carrying the load,
whereas the entire width of a narrow beam is brought
uniformly into play. The thin, wide slab with a
load applied at its center is stressed most where the
load is placed, and the stress decreases to each side
and vanishes if the slab is very wide, in a curve as
shown in figure 1. Narrow rectangular beam theory
has been well established, and the data obtained
in the tests of wide slabs was readily applied to this
theory for the formulation of a suitable basis upon
which to design wide slabs.

HOW THE SLABS WERE INVESTIGATED.

In all of the slab tests at the Bureau of Public
Roads the method of procedure was to apply known
concentrated loads on the slab specimens which
rested on two supports. The deformation of the

steel reinforcing and concrete, and also the deflection
were measured. These deformations or changes
in length in the slab were always taken at the
‘dangerous section,” where they were greatest. In
a few cases, deformations were also measured over
the entire area of the slab. A strain gauge capable
of measuring changes of 0.0002 of an inch was used in
all of the tests, and in addition, the vertical deflec-
tions of the slab were obtained, generally by means
of a micrometer head reading to 0.001 of an inch.

DATA ON SLAB TESTS.

1 See next table.

EFFECTIVE WIDTHS UNDER CENTRAL LOADS,

A : Slab 835: 10}inches | Slab 930: 84 inches Slab 934: 6 inches
Center load. effective depth. effective depth. effective depth.
WED UO Sebeters trellis arses .atateree mica sforetaeiete 11’.4=71.6 per cent | 12’.7=79.5 per cent
span, span,
20; 000 F2=e=5- 11’.6=72.3 per cent | 13’.0=81.2 per cent | 17’.5=109.3 per cent
| span. | span. span,
25; OO0Sz nese |, Li 5—= 71.9 sper cont) |) 12.9 = Siete percent: |e. oa. ss-seee ene see
span, span,
32,5002. ...-- IPH MIESW yy! Gee NORA pe rt seco oee ened erica or “ec Siaeiiee
span.
BORO Samers aiaillaia cletete tate alelela sete= i-taer 1405 — 90s) DOE COM By tieem aya. ee sees ae ate
span,
Halnure: ses | 119,000 pounds...... | 80,000 pounds....... 40,000 pounds.

THEORY USED FOR APPLYING RESULTS.

Consider first a wide slab supporting a single load
concentrated at its center. Measurements of de-
formation show that. the load deforms the central
part of the slab as shown in the curve in figure 1.
The maximum deformation occurs under the load,
and as the sides of the slab are approached the
deformation becomes smaller.

This curve of deformation is the same in shape for
both the steel and concrete. A little thought will
show that the resisting moment of any slab is directly
proportional to the area of the curve of unit deforma-
tion. Two similar slabs stressed to have the same
area of unit deformation, even though their unit
deformation curves are dissimilar in shape, exert
equal resisting moments. Suppose one slab is

stressed as in curve JHI, and the other as in rec-
tangle BIGD, and both have the same area and the
same maximum ordinate CH. A slab of width BD
stressed constantly throughout its width is then
equal in strength to a similar slab stressed as in the
curve by a single load at its center. The width BD

‘Coffective width’ of the

Typical deformation curves in the concrete at the
center line midway between the supports are shown
in figure 2. In this particular slab the total width
was 32 feet and the span was 16 feet, or the width was
equal to twice the span. The features to be noticed
about these curves are (a) the large ordinate under

slab and this is the width
of the slab which may be
considered as carrying the

is commonly called the
\— Width

entire concentrated load.
When the value for this
width as determined by
test is substituted in the
common formulas for nar-
row rectangular beams,
these formulas may be di-
rectly applied to the design
of wide slabs. \
A number of slabs have
been tested as outlined
above, and their effective widths have been obtained
from the deformation curves, first, by getting the
areas included between these curves and their base
lines, then dividing these areas by their maximum

FaliGre ie

the load; (6) the gradual decrease in deformation
to practically zero at the sides. A number of slabs
have been tested with a central load. and having
widths equal to twice their span lengths, and the

table on page 3 gives data
re | oa peal a :

on the slabs tested at the.

SLABS HAVING WIDTHS

LESS THAN TWICE
THEIR SPAN,

The foregoing discussion
treats .of slabs having

Bureau of Public Roads
te
SPAN

widths equal to twice the

during the past five years.

span length, in which case
the sides of the slabs are
not stressed appreciably.

When the width is less
than this, however, stress
does reach the sides, and

the narrower the slab,
the more are the sides put
under stress as seen in

figure 3. It will be recog-
nized that the width of the

slab plays an important

ordinates. When the load is placed in the centers
of the slab and the width of the slab is more than
about twice the span length, the effective width
may be considered as equal to seven-tenths of the
span length of the slab.

FIG. 2,—SHOWING HOW THE STRESS VARIES IN THE SLAB.
a

KT es
hot part in influencing the ef-

fective width. The amount

of this influence has been
quite fully investigated by a number of slab tests,
in which the width of the specimen has been de-
creased after each load application, the sides of the
slab having been split off by means of plugs and
feathers. It has been possible to obtain the follow-

IN WY SS BEY GYNa SPECHMMEINY ANeTHeln [ey NEU e te.

ing values for effective width from these investiga-
tions.
Table I (plotted in figure 4).

TOTAL WIDTH-+SPAN. EFFECTIVE WIDTH+SPAN.

0. 1 OL)
0. 2 0. 2

0.3 0. 28
0. 4 0. 37
0. 5 0, 44
0. 6 0. 50
0.7 0, 55
0.8 0. 58
0.9 0. 62
1.0 0. 65
Ke ab 0. 67
2 0, 68
1.3 0. 70
1.4 0. 71
1.5 0. 72
1.6 0. 72
iby 0. 72
1.8 0. 72
Lg 0. 72
2.0 0. 72

The above values may be used for spans up to 16
feet at least, and probably for longer spans.

TWO LOADS ON THE SLAB (Fig. 5).

When the span is such that a single axle load will
control the maximum bending moment, the slab is
Subjected to two wheel concentrations, and the most

(5)

dangerous condition exists when these wheels are
midway between the supports. In order to investi-
gate this condition, tests were made on slabs with
two loads spaced 5 feet apart on the center line of
the slab. Note the fact that directly under the
load the deformations are greatest, and are even
slightly greater than the deformation at the center
of the slab. This stress distribution does not hold,
however, for every thickness of slab, for a few of the
tests show the deformation to be greatest at the
center. The effective widths of slabs loaded in this
way may, in general, be assumed as equal to the
effective width due to a single load plus 4 feet.

ECCENTRIC LOADS.

When a heavy load traverses a slab bridge it may
not remain at the center line but may travel over
the bridge near one side. Again there are often
occasions when a heavy traction engine will stop at
the side of a bridge spanning a stream, in order to
replenish its supply of water. On such occasions
heavy load concentrations are supported on the side
of the bridge as eccentric loads, and this is a much
more severe condition than that of the- centrally
applied load.

For the investigation of this case a slab specimen
16 feet in span, 32 feet in width and 13 inches
effective depth was made up. ‘The original width

was decreased after each test by cutting strips off
of one side. The loads applied in the center of the
original 32-foot width became an eccentric load as
the side of the slab was gradually removed. Refer-
ring to figure 6, the strips 2, hi, gh, fg, ab, be, cd,
and de, were split off in the order named. The
load was always applied to the same BpOty and
thus its eccentricity va-
ried as the slab width was

the centrally loaded slab (Table No. 1) use the
effective width for central loads.

(2) When the distance of the load from the side
of the slab is less than half the effective width under
central loads (Table 1) the effective width is to be

taken equal to 24D. In order to make a slab

decreased. Without go-

lect ale lola el ete woyselsn| | | |

ing into the details of the
test, the results are shown
in the curve in figure 6.

BREEN
ee
Babs

not
hs 12:0)

The dash line curve is
merely a duplication of

oA EI

that in figure 4, and ap-

plies to wide slabs under

tee

a central load. The solid

curve is based on the tests

*
res saa DEF

of the eccentrically loaded

slab. Note that about 10

feet were spilt off the sides

of the slab before the ef-

fective width began to

differ from that of the

centrally loaded slab.

The load was then 6 feet

from the side of the slab,
and when its distance to
the side became less than
this, the effective width ~
became much less than
that of the same slab
centrally loaded. This is
shown by the deviation

FIG

. 3—HOW THE WIDTH OF SLAB AFFECTS THE STRESS DISTRIBUTION.

Influence of Total Width on Effective Width of Reinforced Concrete Stabs Subjected to Concentrated Loading

of the solid line from the
dash line. The dotted

[4
fo

line is plotted to represent

5 = ‘
colunjn me
SONS, thos Capes
ns.

ke: }
the effective width of an & =,
eccentrically loaded slab E fs
with values for this effec- 2/4
tive width assumed to be e 5
equal to 5 be +D “i
Where

b, =the effective width of
the slab under central
load. D=distance of
load to nearest side of slab.

This curve follows the
curve of test results very
closely and it may be quite safely stated as a gen-
eral proposition that when a slab is eccentrically
loaded, the effective width to be used in design may
be calculated in the following manner:

(1) When the distance of the load from the near-
est side is more than half of the effective width of

_ Total Width.
opan Length
EG

bridge eccentrically loaded equal in strength to one
centrally loaded, it will be necessary to supply extra
strength at the sides by means of a parapet wall, and
the following procedure for the design will give safe
results. .

(1) Use the formulas for narrow rectangular Although there are several other conditions which
beams substituting for the breadth b the value ob- may arise in the investigation of bridge slabs, the
tained from Table 1, (2) de-
termine the loss in effec-
tive width due to the as-
sumed eccentricity of the
load, (3) supply the defi-
ciency by designing the
curb of the parapet to
provide a resisting mo-
ment equal to that of the
slab width lost due to ; 72 Freda oe
eccentricity. Allowance ae +++
will have to be made,
however, for the stiffness
of the section under the See 33 rt Ek ois a
parapet. An unfinished 4
test thus far indicates
that this method of design
is safe at least.

To illustrate the above
method. Assumetheslab
16 feet inspan length and
20 feet in width, designed
to carry a concentrated
load to be applied 3 feet
from one edge, then the

Total width 20
Span eee l6

SSS spay
ITS FT 109.4 %

= 1.25.

From the table for cen-
tral concentrated loading
(Table 1), the effective
width = 0.69 x 16’ = 11.04
feet=6,. Consider the
load to be carried by a

width of 11.04 feet, use iy Fig ay represents original slab, 32Ft
: " ss i wide. Sections y,ht, gh, fg, ab, be,
the ordinary formulas for cd,andde were split off in the order
rectangular beam design, poet named,and tests were made on
. a © Based on Concrete Readings ‘ the remaining portions, with the
and determine the effec ** ;’ " Steel " load in position as indicated.

tive depth of the slab and | ; Tete tat alec T r
- the area of the steel re- oe Re ea ee ae Re a eg tse PANT ae OO ‘ee ag TT ge
quired. Nextdetermine,
by the relation indicated

feet =effective width for
eccentric load.

The difference between .
the values of 6, and 6, is WiatHd eReLA@T AER Ef

above, the effective width
with the load placed3feet =
from the side. 5

5
bet +3 feet=8.52 ¢

11.04—8.52=2.52 feet. CURVE SHOWING
The curb of the parapet EFFECTIVE WIOTH vs. WIDTH OF SLAB.
FIG. 6.

should, therefore, be de- |
signed so that it will have a resisting moment equal few above considered are most important, as they

to that of aslab of width 2.52 feet. generally control the design.

UTILIZING LOCAL STONE.

By GEORGE E. LADD, Bureau of Public Roads

the current year has been the great interest

in the utilization of local stone in road work.
In some parts of the country rail transportation of
broken stone in any considerable quantity is very
slow and granted so reluctantly by the Railroad
Administration that officials responsible for the
maintenance and reconstruction of highways can
not rely any longer on former sources of supply.
Consequently there is a quite general return to the
use of small crushing plants for producing road
material locally.

From the viewpoint of a quarryman engaged in
producing crushed stone there are two distinct types
of crusher installations. One of these is for large-
scale production and is operated continuously, if
practicable, in order to keep the unit cost of the
product as low as possible. The other is a small
type, producing rock for local purposes and often
the rock for but one stretch of highway. The
methods of conducting the blasting and conveying
the material in large quarries usually differ from
those in the plants which it is best to employ in
small operations. The failure to understand the
essential differences between large-scale and small-
scale operations is responsible for much of the unnec-
essary high cost of utilizing local materials with
portable plants. Furthermore the conditions favor-
able for the production of crushed stone exclusively
may be unfavorable for turning out dimension stone.
For example, a multiplicity of joint planes is an
advantage:in producing rock for crushers and may
render the ledge of little or no value for other
purposes.

There are two general classes of quarries used in
small-scale work. The first is the temporary quarry
which will probably be abandoned after it furnishes
the material for which it is opened, and the second
class is the small quarry which may be operated
intermittently to meet later demands for crushed
stone. In the latter class more preliminary work
is warranted than in the former. It may be desir-
able in such cases to avoid a thick overburden on
the rock, to spend more money for drainage, and to
install a more expensive plant than where there is
no probability that stone will be taken from the
quarry after the original working of it. For a single
operation it may even be desirable to employ stiff
uphill haulage, which is undesirable if the quarry
is to furnish stone from time to time in future
operations.

()° E of the results of war-time activities during

(8)

In studying local stone, where any question
concerning its availability for road work arises,
samples should be sent to the State highway com-
mission or to the Bureau of Public Roads at Wash-
ington. During the period of the war it will be
necessary in some sections’ to use stone which is not
of the most desirable quality, but great care should
be exercised to develop those quarries which will
supply the best material it is practicable to obtain
without railroad transportation. Fortunately in a
number of States a large amount of information has
been collected regarding the location and quality of
stone which can be employed for highway construc-
tion, but the development of the commercial crushed
stone industry has tended to diminish the value of
such information during ordinary times, and the
existence of it may not be generally known. Most
cities have one or more well-informed amateur
geological enthusiasts whose assistance in preparing
a list of the available local sources of supply will
prove useful, even though they have no knowledge
of the qualities which a stone must possess to be
fitted for road work.

THE QUARRY SITE.

The selection of the quarry site, even for small
operations, may involve the weighing of a number of
factors. It is of course desirable to reduce the
amount of overburden which must be stripped, but
this factor, upon which much stress is frequently
laid by authors discussing large-scale quarrying,
may actually be of relative unimportance in tem-
porary work in connection with roadbuilding. It

is desirable to obtain rock which is undecomposed, |

and the extent of the fissures and the filling of

fissures by clay and detritus may be determining:

factors in selecting the ledge. The length of haul
and the grades over which the hauling must be done,
the possible location of the crushing plant, the de-
livery of the quarry rock to the crusher platform,
and the delivery of the crushed stone to the wagons
or trucks must all be considered. Drainage is often
an important factor. The quarry floor, the mechan-
ical plant and the roadways must be kept dry.

If sedimentary rock is to be used and the beds
are not horizontal, the site should be selected as a
rule so that the bedding planes will dip either to
the right or to the left as they appear in the face of
the quarry. In order to attain this end it is neces-
sary to determine the strike and dip of the bedding
planes. The strike is the line made by the inter-

td tA

section of the plane of a
dipping bed with a hori-
zontal plane, and is re-
corded by giving its angu-
lar direction with respect
to a north and south line.
The dip is the angle which
the dipping plane makes
with a horizontal plane
intersecting it and ismeas-
ured at right angles to
the strike. The dip and
strike can not be ascer-
tained from a single cross
section of the strata. At
least enough of the sur-
faces of the bedding planes
must be seen to show the
average position of the
beds in the rock to be
quarried.

In ledges of granite
and metamorphic rock,
structural planes resem-
bling bedding planes may
‘occur. The quarry face
should be opened in such
cases so that these planes
dip to the right or to the
left in the face. This re-
duces the amount of work
to be done against gray-
ity. Ifa face can not be
opened in this way, it is
better to open the quarry
with the main structural
planes dipping into the
face rather than away from it. Where bedded
rocks have a gentle dip, and the quarry face is
opened so that operations proceed toward this dip,
there is danger of following a bedding plane down
with the dip and producing a floor sloping toward
the face, which will form a pocket for the accumula-

tion water and make it necessary to haul stone’

upgrade to the crusher.
Stripping the quarry is usually done from time to
time as the quarrying proceeds, in the case of small

work.
QUARRY EQUIPMENT.

For small quarrying operations, the steam or air
drill mounted on a tripod is required for the deeper
holes for blasting down the face, and a hand hammer
drill for putting holes in bowlders or for shallow work
in opening the quarry. The hand drill can be used
in the softer rocks for the blasting of the face if it
is benched to 12-foot faces, but it is unwise to de-
pend upon it for such work if a tripod drill can be

82716—18 2

TOP: ECONOMICAL ARRANGEMENT OF CRUSHER PLANT. STONE RUNS TO CRUSHER BY GRAV-
ITY. BOTTOM: EXPENSIVE WAY OF GETTING ROCK TO CRUSHER,

obtained. Many plants have excess boiler capacity
which enables the drill to be operated without a
special bouer plant, but if the crushing equipment
is some distance from the quarry face it may be
advisable to install a boiler for the drills exclusively.

Light railways for handling stone from the quarry
to the crusher have not often been used in tem-
porary plants, but where labor and horses are scarce,
and light railway equipment can be obtained at a
reasonable expense, it may prove economical.
Conveyors are occasionally employed in gravel pits.
As a rule the stone is handled in dump carts.

The crushing plant on these small temporary
operations is generally rated as requiring about 15
to 30 horsepower, which is enough to furnish from
6 to 30 tons of hard, tough crushed stone per hour.
Belt drives are desirable for crushing, screening and
conveying machinery, for a belt will slip if a sudden
overload occurs and the danger of breakage is
materially reduced in this way. It is customary to
estimate that at least 1 horsepower must be provided

TOP: PORTABLE CRUSHING, SCREENING, AND DRYING PLANT. TEAMS ARE DRIVEN ACROSS

PLATFORM AND RETURN.

PLATFORM.

per ton of preduct per hour for a small crusher, and
about one-half horsepower for elevating and screen-
ing, where jaw crushers are used, and 25 to 50 per
cent more for a gyratory crusher. The boiler horse-
power must be in excess of this. <A 34-inch tripod
drill requires 8 to 10 boiler horsepower.

Elevators to raise the crushed stone from the
crusher to the screen are generally necessary. The
foremen should be instructed to keep the pit at the
foot of the elevator cleaned out. In some cases a
conveyor can be used to advantage to carry quarry
rock to the crusher. The screens in small portable
plants are generally placed on top of the bins, which
hold from 12 to 50 tons of screened stone, and are
equipped to discharge their contents by gravity.
Where crushed gravel is produced, it is desirable to
screen it so that only the oversize material goes to
‘the crusher. For this purpose a screen is usually set

BOTTOM: SHOWING ROAD TO AND FROM CRUSHER PLATFORM.
THIS IS A MORE ECONOMICAL ARRANGEMENT THAN WHERE THEY HAVE TO TURN ON THE

up near the crusher in
such a position that the
oversize is delivered to
the crusher as directly as
possible, and the sized ma-
terial is delivered either
to a stock pile or to the
bins receiving the crusher
product, depending on the
local requirements.

In war times it 1s speci-
ally desirable to reduce the
amount of labor required
about the quarrying: and
crushing plant. An able-
bodied man should not be
used if machinery to take

at reasonable expense.
For example the crushing
plant can sometimes be lo-
cated so that the stone is
fed to it from the quarry
by gravity. Itis desirable
to place the crushing plant
as near the quarry face
as practicable, and yet
avoid damage by the blast-
ing operations. It is de-
sirable to drive the rock
carts across the crusher
platform rather than to
turn on it. A crusher
having a large jawreduces
the number of bowlders
which must be broken up.
Good foundation should
be provided wherever nec-
essary, and all shafting
must be kept aligned and lubricated. Machinery of
this character receives such severe usagé that it is
advisable to give more than the usual attention to
its care, in order to avoid shutdowns for repairs

which proper maintenance would avoid. Such shut-

downs often result in the idleness of a large part of
the construction force, and where the work is already
lagging behind the desired rate of progress this may
be a serious matter.

QUARRY OPERATIONS.

The operations which are most likely ‘to cause
unnecessary expense in quarrying are: Drilling; the
proper spacing and proper location of holes; blast-
ing. Different classes of rock resist explosives so
differently, and there is such a wide variety of work-
ing conditions at different quarry sites where the
kind of rock is the same, that even experienced

his place can be obtained

a ein A eee

op itp ee Smads alg Re ee

Pe he OOD oy LOO SE Ale

nail

quarrymen must experi-
ment at every new quarry
to determine the best blast-
ing methods.

If the surface of the rock
is practically horizontal, a
sunken-type quarry must
be opened. It will then
be necessary to hoist the
material out of the quarry
or to build a sloping in-
cline down into it to ena-
ble the material to be
hauled out. In this case
three or four drill holes
about six feet deep: are
driven at an angle of 30
to 40 degrees inclosing a
pyramidal mass of rock.
After this has been blasted
out, the pit is opened out
until a face, usually curved
in plan, has been obtained.
Additional depth is ob-
tained by repeating the
whole process in each suc-
cessive floor. While open-
ing up the quarry in this
way valuable information
can be obtained concern-
ing the best explosives to
use and the proper spac-
ing of the holes. As arule
it is best to try 40 per
cent dynamite first, if the
rock is limestone, and 75
per cent dynamite if it is
a tough igneous rock. If
the results are unsatisfac-
tory a trial of some of each grade in each hole can
be made, and the proportions of the two varied un-
til the best results are obtained. Slow-acting explo-
sives lift and throw rock more than quick-acting

BACKGROUND.

‘grades, which have a greater shattering effect.

If an approximately vertical face can be obtained,
at which to start the quarrying operations, it 1s cus-
tomary to sink the first row of holes back from the
face a distance equal to about three-fourths of their
depth. The depth of the holes in the benches is
commonly 10 to 12 feet, and in a complete quarry
face it may be 18 to 20 feet. The work of develop-
ment is carried on until the quarry face has a slope
of about 45 degrees. The overburden is then stripped
off and regular quarrying operations begun. The
first holes are in a row 6 to 8 feet back from the face,
6 to 7 feet’ apart, and sunk nearly or quite to the
floor. If there is a seam or bedding plane at the
floor, the holes may be stopped 5 or 6 inches above it,

TOP: TEMPORARY QUARRY WITH TWO PORTABLE CRUSHING AND SCREENING PLANTS.

GRADE TO HIGHWAY JUST TO LEFT OF QUARRY.
RARY QUARRY NEARBY TO PORTABLE CRUSHING AND SCREENING PLANT FOR ROAD IN

DOWN
BOTTOM: DELIVERING ROCK FROM TEMPO-

for the blasting will break the rock to the seam. The
next row of holes may be sunk at a distance back
from the face equal to three-fourths of their depth.

The proper spacing of drill holes in the regular
quarrying operations depends upon the hardness
and toughness of the rock, the number and arrange-
ment of the joint planes and seams, the depth of the
drill holes, the kind and amount of explosive used,
and its vertical distribution in the holes. Experi-
ments must be made until an arrangement is found
which will not only tear down the face but will break
the rock most completely for the crusher.

The choice of explosives, unless an expert powder-
man can be consulted, should only be made after
securing the advice of the powder company supply-
ing the explosive. These companies also furnish
complete instructions for using dynamite, which
should be thoroughly taught to the man in charge
of the quarrying operations.

Small quarrying and crushing operations are
always expensive, per cubic yard of output, in com-
parison with large-scale operations. It is all the
more desirable, therefore, to carry on the work so

that these costs will be as low as possible, which ~
can only be done by requiring the foreman to keep -

a detailed record of his expenses and the output of
the plant. These records should show his progress
in reducing the drilling and explosives needed to
blast out the rock, the labor required in delivering
it to the crusher, and the expenses of the crushing.
Constant endeavor should be made to encourage
foremen to seek methods of greater efficiency in the
work under them.

* MAINTAINING GOOD ROADS.

It is axiomatic with householders that ‘‘ keeping
up the house is the truest economy.’’ And so most
-of us watch for signs of decay about our premises,
and we putty and paint and repair, to guard against
the heavy expenses that would be the certain
penalty of serious neglect.

But when it comes to municipal housekeeping
what is our practice? Usually long periods of
positively wanton neglect. This is especially true
of our roads, which are an important part of our
municipal premises.

We build our macadam streets, bolster them up
with a good foundation, surface them with the best
material at hand, roll them, view the finished job
with satisfaction and then, like a slovenly home
owner, pay no further attention to them until they
have fallen into such a disreputable state that the
steam roller must come with its plows, tear them to
pieces and begin a work of complete reconstruction.

Practically all of the nations of Europe have long
ago learned the economy of road maintenance. As
you travel over the beautiful, hard macadam roads
of France you observe, at intervals, small piles of

broken stone and gravel. And for every dozen

miles of road there is a road patrol with his one-:

horse cart, who labors incessantly at filling up the
little depressions, ruts and holes, with his ever
ready supply of good material. Once filled, the
damaged spot is wet down thoroughly and tamped,
and the road becomes again an integral whole. The
thrifty householders of France have thus carried into
the housekeeping of their municipalities and proy-
inces the economics which they practice about their

own hearth stones.
—Dubuque, la., Times-Journal,

BUSINESS MEN WORK ROADS.

Twenty-five business men of Bluffton, Ohio, put
in a day working on the roads leading out from that
town, in order to get them in better shape. More
than 25 miles in all were repaired. 7

CONSIDER IOWA’S ROADS.

At the summer conferencé of the commercial
secretaries of Iowa, held in August, a full day was
spent discussing Iowa’s roads, how they could be
improved, plans for future development and an
educational campaign throughout the State in regard
to them.

URGE ROAD WORK AS WAR MEASURE.

The Ohio State Automobile Association set under
way a campaign for the dragging and scraping of
dirt roads in that State this fall, with the idea that
otherwise unimproved roads may be used as late as
possible into the season of bad weather. It is
urged that it is the duty of township and other road
authorities to take steps for this work, that the big
crops which have been raised may be moved to
receiving centers and railroads and not le on the
farms. Drainage of these roads is_ especially
emphasized.

BAD ROAD LOSES MAIL SERVICE.

Near Decatur, Ill., a part of one of the rural mail
routes has been cut off and the service transferred
because of the bad condition of the road, which was
not repaired after 60 days’ notice had been given.
Several families thus lose their mail delivery.

FOR TENNESSEE HIGHWAYS.

The Tennessee State Highway Committee held a
meeting in August at which State and Government
funds were allotted for road construction in Ander-
son, Hawkins, Unicoi, Sullivan, Cocke, Campbell,
Madison, and Maury Counties. About $10,000 were
appropriated for each county. The Maury County
road will be along the Jackson Highway. The
route of the Bristol-Memphis Highway west from
Nashville was decided in favor of the Charlotte Pike
or Dogorock route.

TO PROMOTE MOTOR TRUCK EXPRESS.

The Highways Transport Committe of the New
York State Council of Defense will carry on a cam-
paign in every county in the State to promote motor
express lines. In addition to establishing rural
motor lines the chief endeavor will be to start return
load bureaus and to secure the removal of snow from
roads so as to permit truck transportation the year
round.

Highway Commissioner Duffey told the committee

at a recent meeting that State highways had stood

the severe test of the movement of Government
motor trucks with excellent results, save where the
trucks were used last spring on the older sections
before the frost was out of the ground.

‘|

“4!

a ee

MAINTAINING EARTH ROADS WITH OIL.

By THOS. H. MACDONALD.

HE State of Iowa has learned by experience
that the use of certain asphaltic road oils
which produce a mat when applied to an

earth road gives
good service for a
limited time under
_ moderate traffic.
With the prices
on all types of pay-
ing surfaces almost
at the prohibitive
point, with labor
for new construc-
tion and for drag- '
ging and blade
grader mainte-
nance next to im-
possible to secure,
and with a consid-
erable mileage of
important roads
which have been
maintained for sey-
eral years past by
oiling and which
must continue to
receive such treat-
ment or go entirely
to pieces, it would
seem that oiling
certain Iowa roads
should receive at-
tention as a war-
time economy
measure. Onsome
limited sections of
highway it would
seem reasonable to
class road oiling asa
war-time necessity.
The dirt road on

which oil has
formed a good mat
will withstand
much more traffic
for a considerable
time with very little
maintenance and
with more freedom
from dust and mud

Sirecis WINSSAMIE, IOWAG s1O Ps

nuisance than the unoiled earth réad even with a
While the traffic
(13)

considerable maintenance expense.

OILED
JUNCTION OF OILED AND UNOILED SECTIONS.

that these oiled dirt roads carry is heavy for Iowa,
it is not heavy for more densely peopled sections of
the country where heavy motor trucks are used.

BOTTOM:

INTERSECTION SHOWING UNOILED APPROACH.

What we mean by heavy traffic in Iowa is a very large
number of light automobiles and light trucks, and

for such traffic the mat produced by the suitable
grade of road oil on a well-prepared dirt road affords
a sufficiently good wearing surface, though we have
found it an extremely expensive one to maintain.

While the application of good road oil to properly
graded and drained earth roads maintains them in
a serviceable condition, very poor results have been
obtained with the use of some of the cheaper oils
on gravel surfaces. In come cases the oil has acted
apparently as a lubricant to the pebbles forming
the gravel and has helped to destroy rather than
to increase the road: bond. During the period of
the war paving is out of the question as a remedy
for road conditions in Iowa, and will soon be stopped
entirely. We will necessarily fall back upon those
systems of maintenance which will retain our
present roads in a serviceable condition as long as
possible, even at an excessive cost. Hence, we
feel that our experience with the use of asphaltic
road oils justifies us in employing them in our
maintenance work. We can not maintain our roads
in the condition needed for the traffic they must
carry in some places without such oil.

It is undoubtedly true that oil has been used on
earth roads in many cases when it should not have
been employed, and the same criticism can be made
on every form of maintenance and road paving.
However, our experience shows that in the alloca-
tion of road oil for street and highway purposes the
distribution of the material should not be based
solely on the character of the roads to which it is
to be applied. Consideration should be given to
the service the roads age called upon to render.
There are surfaced roads in sections of Iowa which
do not carry so much or so important traffic as the

earth roads in other sections carry, and there are

surfaced roads in other States which do not begin
to render the important service to the commun-
ity that earth roads are called upon to render in
Towa. 3

The situation that we are facing in Iowa at this
time is an unusual one. We do not believe in the
general extensive use of road oil on earth roads.
We have always refused to approve of this practice
on the ground that the results were not comparable
with the expenditures, but under present conditions
we find ourselves attempting to carry an ever-
increasing amount of traffic over roads which must
be used without more surfacing. It is not so much
a matter of cost as of the actual impossibility of
securing contractors willing to take the work under
any conditions. We must maintain our principal
roads with the absolute minimum of labor, even
though the cost of doing so is excessive, and the use
of oil of good quality assists in attaining this end.
Therefore, it seems logical that road oil which is

available for country highways should be desirable
on the basis of the service to be rendered by the
roads which it is proposed to oil rather than by the
actual character of the roads surfaced now.

TOLL ROAD PURCHASED BY STATE.

Arrangements have been made for the purchase
of the Lancaster, Pa.-Columbia Pike from the Lan-
caster and Susquehanna Turnpike Company, for
$80,000, which will give to the stockholders about
$400 a share for their stock. The road will soon be a
free public highway.

LOUISIANA ROAD PROJECTS.

At a meeting of the police juries of Terrebonne,
Lafourche, and St. Mary Parishes, La., in August,
it was decided to build three roads in these Parishes
which affect all mutually, and also to build the link
in the Southern National Highway stretching across
Assumption Parish, 34 miles long, which will shorten
the road between New Orleans and Morgan City by
10 miles. A portion of the funds for this link was
raised by private subscription. °

FOR $50,000,000 ROAD FUND.

An amendment to the Pennsylvania constitution
wil be voted on at the November election this year
to authorize the creation of a State debt of $50,000,-
000 for the building and improvement of highways.
Five years ago a similar proposition was defeated.
It is believed that now the voters of the State see
the question in a different light. Advocates of the
proposition hold that the great importance motor
truck transportation has developed has made clearer
the necessity for better roads in Pennsylvania.

MISLEADING MILE POSTS.

A movement has been started in Hamilton Coun-
ty, Tenn., to abolish the system of advertising mile
posts which exists along the public roads in that
county. A very complete case has been made out
against the system. It is shown that these posts are
not reliable, that in the same locality will be found

- signs differing much as to distances, and that much

confusion and misunderstanding is brought about
by them.

The mile posts are erected on the county’s right
of way, and it is believed that jurisdiction over
them is with the highway commission. Some legis-
lation may be necessary to effect desired results.
It is proposed to have every highway properly
measured by the county engineer and mile posts
erected by the commission at the public expense.

TESTS OF AUTOMOBILE NUMBER TAGS

By JAS. P. NASH, Testing Engineer, Texas State Highway Department.

EXAS, being one of the four States of the Union
using the permanent number tag for motor

: vehicles, the State highway commission
considered it good business to have sample plates
from the various bidders tested before awarding
the contract for additional numbers. ‘The tags are
permanent in the sense that they do not change
every year, but remain with the car as long as the
latter is used on the public highways. The law
provides that the motor vehicle shall be provided
with a seal, which alone is changed each year. So
that purchasing the tags it was desired to procure
a number plate that would look well and at the same
time outlast the average life of an automobile, which
was considered at between three and five years.

Three destructive influences were considered, first
the drying action of the sun on the enamel, second,
the action of salt air or water on the tags, and last
the impact of sand and stones and the wearing action
of loose parts tending to wear the enamel off. The
test of the properties resisting the first destructive
influences was by placing the tags in an oven for
8 hours at 100° C. These tags, which included the
poorest as well as the best, were put through an
abrasion test. In order to determine the relative
value of this heating test, duplicate tags were run
in the abrasion test without previous heating, but
no difference in appearance could be detected, so it
was concluded to abandon the heating test. Fur-
thermore, it was decided that any paint that was
hard and tenacious to resist the abrasion test to
which the tags were put, would leave little doubt
regarding its qualities resisting weathering. Upon
examining a number of plates which had been in
use for a year, it was noted that practically the only
defects were that the paint had been scratched or
worn away by some hard agent such as a keen knife
used in removing mud.

The abrasion test was made by revolving the
plates, bent so as to form a cylinder, with an abrasive
agent of iron hexagon nuts. The plates were fas-
tened, face inward, on two circular wooden rings
28 inches outside diameter. A short metal strip
formed the joint between two plates. This formed
a hollow cylinder, the tags lengthwise forming’ the
circumference, while the width of the number,
which was 4 inches, determined the height. This
cylinder was placed in the brick rattler as a con-
venient means of revolving it, only three staves being
used, however, in order to lighten the load on the
pulleys. Crushed quartz sand was first tried as an
abrasive agent, but this had little effect on the

enamel, so one-sixteenth inch steel ball bearings
were then tried, but the results were not considered
decisive enough, so finally 400 grams (13 in number)
of one-half inch hexagon nuts were used and the cyl-
inder was given 1,000 revolutions in either direction.

The results of this abrasion test were very satis-
factory as it showed very clearly the hardness of
the paint and the tenacity with which it adhered
to the metal. With some of the number plates the

‘paint was almost completely clipped off, exposing as

much as 90 per cent of the metal. The paint on
even the best plates was badly scratched, but no
metal was exposed except at the edge of the raised
letters. "There were varying degrees of wear between
these two extremes. It is worthy of note that

Reports of tests of auto number plates,

;
| Loss in |
Thick- | weight |
ness of | in 2,000} Rating. Condition of plate after run.
metal. | revolu- |
| tions.

Number on

| plate.

Inch.
0.033

Grams.

INOe eee 74 ODT RO R033) Heer te eee 70

Blue background badly
scratched, but metal not
exposed except at corners.
White letters about 50 per
cent worn,

Blue background in fair con-
dition; metal exposed at
edge of letters, butletters in
good condition. Metal ex-

| posed in pin-point areas in

| background.

381,079 . 028 1.0 2(60)65 | Blue background badly

scratched and chipped off

in pin-point areas. White
letters in fair condition ex-
cept at edges where metal

is fully exposed; about 30

per cent worn.

734, 508 .028 | 6 57. Blue background chipped off

} wherever exposed to con-
siderable wear. White let-
ters in fair condition.

Blue background badly
worn, exposing metal over
large areas. White letters
in fair condition; about 30
per cent worn.

Blue background worn be-
tween letters where abra-

| sive agent had free contact.

| About 85 per cent of black

} worn off letters.

Green background almost
completely worn away.
White letters worn away
at edges and had appear-
ance of salt and pepper.

174, 005

1 381,079 025 | 0.8 65

No. 3

in)

734, 508 - 028 1.7 | 26

3 381, 079 .020 | 3.0 55

LA. 23, 600 . 028 au 40

K
D 5438 A O24 es cee 35 | Both background and letters
N | worn so that about 75 per
| cent of metal is exposed;
poor condition.

K |
D 5438 A] .025 Background and letters worn
y | so that about 85 per ceht of
metal is exposed.
30 | Paint badly worn; about 95
| er cent of paint is worn off
etters and 10 per cent off
background.
100 per cent paint worn off
letters and 70 per cent off
background.

140,491 ILL

=
nee
NC)
bo
at

140,492 111 | .385 3.0

2(25)30

1 No. 2 extra finish.

2 Denotes plates were subjected to temperature of 100° C. for 8 hours and tested
with sand, and ball bearings before final test with hexagon nuts, Rating arbi-
trarily raised 5 per cent to allow for this,

3 No. 3,-26 gauge.

(15)

the two highest
prices bid in-
cluded the best and
poorest plates as
shown by this test.

In order that
the difference 1n
wear could be pre-
sented to the
highway commis-
sion in a forceful
manner, and ma
measure duplicate
the weathering ac-
tion of our coast
country, the num-
ber plates, after
the abrasion test,
were subjected to
a 10 per cent solu-
common
the
tags were embed-

tion of
galt... Bars
ded in sandsatura-
ted with the salt
water, but it Was
found that grains
of sand rusted to
the exposed metal.
To avoid ‘this,
they were removed
from the sand and
sprinkled with the
salt water, then al-
lowed to dry in air.
A further effect,
besides the rusting
of the metal, was
noted, and that
was the paint on
the backs of many
of the plates be-
came soft in spots
and could be
rubbed off
slight
with the thumb.
The rating given
the tags Was a mat-
of judgment,

by a

pressure

ter
arrived at by con-
sidering the plate before the run as 100 per cent
perfect, and estimating the area of. metal exposed
by the tests, not considering the edge of the raised
letters. While the actual numeric figures may be
slightly in error, the relative worth of each plate is
clearly brought out and the numerical rating’ is
merely a means to an end.

TESTING OF AUTOMOBILE NUMBER TAGS. TOP: SHOWS THE MANNER IN WHICH THE ABRASIVE TEST
WAS MADE. BOTTOM: APPEARANCE OF TAGS, AFTER THE WESTS.

The contract for 75,000 additional pairs of plates
was awarded at 34 cents a pair to the concern that
held the previous contract for the identical plates
at 39 cents, so it was considered that a saving of at
least 5 cents per pair was made by having the plates
tested, besides being assured that a good quality
plate was obtained.

lenient.

STANDARD SIZES OF CRUSHED STONE, >

From the Standpoint of the Producer

By R. W. SCHERER, Secretary; Wisconsin Crushed Stone Associavion

HE movement to standardize commercial
crushed stone sizes, inaugurated by engi-
neers of the Bureau of Public Roads,

should be and will be heartily welcomed by
crusher operators. The demands as_ suggested
by Messrs. F. H. Jackson, jr., and C. W. Mitman
in their article in the June number of ‘‘Pub-
lic Roads” far from being stringent are rather too
Economic plant operation is not the pro-
ducers’ only interest in the matter. They should
be and generally are equally interested in the results
from the type of construction involved and will be
found willing to sacrifice economic operating to a
considerable degree to gain better results.

It is difficult to see what a further survey of the
screening practice and study of thé nomenclature will
do to clear up the situation. One could not expect
to arrive at a typical set of screens by counting
noses, nor by finding a majority of installations that
are alike to which the minority would conform. It
is also to be regretted that the investigators found it
‘impossible to record the rate of feeding the stone
into the screen.””’ That the nomenclature was in a

condition of ‘‘confusion worse confounded”’ needed

no demonstration.
HOW PRODUCT VARIES.

To define a grade of stone all are agreed that size
of screen openings through and over which the ma-
terial passes must be stated. When these are stated
the product may still vary from several causes.

First. There is an appreciable difference in the
product of round and square. perforations. A hole
described as 2 inches square will pass a larger stone
than a round one 2 inches in diameter. Square per-
forations are still used, though to a very small ex-
tent except in fine screens. It would be safe to con-
fine the question to circular holes; where square
perforations are retained they must be made the
equivalents of circular openings.

Second. It makes a noticeable difference in the
product whether screens are stationary or revolving.
On a stationary screen the stone particles slide over
the surface; they are held on their longest dimension.
In a revolving screen the stones roll and can and do
go through holes no larger than their smallest
dimension. The difference in size of product is so

82716—18——3

great that the stationary screen will retain 20 to 40
per cent of material that has been passed through a
revolving screen of the same size perforations.
This means that the specification still retained by
some engineers—naming the largest dimension as
the determining one is not practicable, since sta-
tionary screens are almost unknown in the industry.
If engineers knew this, they might discontinue the
practice. They could guard against ‘‘slivers” by
other means. :

Third: It makes a difference, of course, whether
a screen of any type is overloaded or not. More
often it is the large plant that has inadequate
facilities for separating the sizes. Fines are carried
over to the next section having larger openings.
Thorough screening should be understood in desig-
nating sizes and how thorough it should be will be
discussed in another paragraph.

NOMENCLATURE,

Now then, to get clearness in the matter of describ-
ing sizes. Let us describe a given product at least
technically by the size of perforation which it passed
through and the size of perforation that held it and
let us understand thoroughly that the figures are
for a round perforation, for a revolving screen, and:
for a screen of sufficient capacity for the plant.

And if we can best describe a given product by
maximum and minimum smallest dimension, for
technical purposes, why not for all purposes?) Why
should there be the conflicting nomenclature of
numbers and more or less descriptive names. In
fact, dimensions are the one description that now
are universally intelligible, and it would seem that
for all practical purposes, ordering stone, specifying,
invoicing, and all, it is Just as easy to refer to 2-1]
inch stone as it is to write or talk about 23 or
medium fine stone.

Probably the best established and most universal
system of nomenclature is that of the granite
crushers both East and West where No. 1 stone is
always very nearly 24, 14, and one-quarter inch and
finer called No. 4. It would be very difficult to
accustom the- granite trade to another system of
numbers, while they could be led to adopt the figures
limiting the sizes.

(17)

LIMITING THE NUMBER OF GRADES.

Once we have means of describing grades of
crushed stone and it would seem that with the above
understanding—2-1 imch stone or any other size
would mean the same thing everywhere—a further
understanding could be arrived at between the
producers on the one hand and road builders,
engineers, and architects on the other hand as to
grades that should be offered by the former and
demanded by the latter.

The advantages to the crusher operators, if the
number of grades can be reasonably limited, are
manifest. There can be no question that there has
been on the part of engineers—less of road engineers
than of the specialists in structural concrete—con-
siderable academic dogmatism about sizes for cer-
tain purposes—they have been just ‘“‘finnicky.”’
But—and this is from the quarryman’s standpoint
as well as the engineer’s—results must be considered.

It is to the quarryman’s interest—and some of them.

‘an see it—to furnish just thesize that will give the
best results. It is incumbent on all parties interested
to ascertain how much of this fastidiousness is
justified and in how far the results in road or concrete
are affected by a slight variation from the size
demanded by some engineer whom the quarryman
thinks pedantic.

THE DEMANDS OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE.

Here are some thoughts from the standpoint of
the quarry operator who is interested in results,
which it is hoped may illuminate the subject.
On the one hand, some paving engineers, using
stone in a special process of asphaltic concrete
paving, have insisted on a product passed through
a screen one-eighth inch larger or one-eighth inch
smaller than was commercially produced. .This
seems to be pedantry that passes for scientific
aggregating. In stone above 1 inch, one-eighth
inch more or less can make no possible difference;
even a quarter-inch variation seems unreasonable
in l-inch and larger stone. The demand for such
Variations can be eliminated.

On the other hand, quarrymen are at fault when
they fail to recognize the imperative necessity for
good screening. And here is where they should
consider results. Stone for macadam must be dis-
tinguished from stone for concrete, and differently
prepared. It makes no difference what the hard-
ship on the quarrymen may be, results to a certain
extent justify the sacrifice.

The distinction can be simply stated in this way:
‘In macadam stone there must be a large percentage
of voids, while in concrete stone the percentage
must be as low as possible. To elucidate, no road
builder can bind a crusher-run stone. Fines, when
present in coarse stone, close the interstices and
prevent the entrance of the binder.even when that

¢
c

binder is hot tar. How much more must these
fines prevent the entrance of. stone screenings in
water-bound macadam. In penetration macadam,
road builders have had to discontinue the practice
of dumping loads of the top course stone on the
base, because as the load is spread with shovels the
‘fines’? remain on the spot. The stone ‘mats;”’
the binder, instead of covering each stone, spatters
on the mat; the binder does not anchor in the body
of the course, and a bald spot results. <A large
percentage of failures of “poured macadam”’ is due
to poor screening. Fines should not be tolerated
at all. The engineers of the Bureau of Public Roads
suggest a maximum of 15 per cent, but 10 per cent
should be the limit; 0 per cent should be aimed at.

There is no “‘finnickyness” about demanding good
screening for macadam. Not only should the fines
be removed but the range of sizes in any one grade
should be restricted as much as possible for ma-
cadam stone and as wide as possible for concrete
work. Thus, for macadam top course, 2—14-inch
stone is better than 2—1-inch. The former being
more even sized has more voids, and voids are what
is wanted.

SCREENING CONCRETE AGGREGATES.

On the other hand, concrete aggregates must have
a minimum of voids; the greater the range of sizes
the better the results. Stone ranging in size from
2 to 14 inches has 50 per cent of voids. To make
a dense concrete, one-half of the concrete must be
mortar, or a mixture of cement and fine aggregates.
Well-graded stone ranging in size from 2 to one-
fourth inch, when intimately mixed, has 35 per cent
of voids or less, leaving just that percentage to be
filled with mortar. The efficiency of the cement in
the latter case is increased from 35 to 50, which
means over 40 per cent.

The proofs for this are abundant. Whenever and
wherever coarse aggregates have been tested for
the compressive strength of the resultant concrete
the well-graded samples have stood the highest
tests. In fact, from the vast number of experi-
mental tests of fine aggregates, in which investi-
gators all over the world have used three sizes des-
ignated as fine, medium, and coarse, plotting their
results on what is known as the Feret triangle, it is
evident that 70 per cent of the largest size per-
missible, 20 per cent of the medium, and 10 per
cent of fine results in the best concrete. Why
should not engineers insist that not less than 25
per cent nor more than 50 per cent of, say a 2—4-inch
concrete aggregate shall pass a 1-inch ring and why.
should not quarrymen be prepared to furnish it ?

Again this is not pedantry. Why? <A concrete
made of all 2-inch stone and an ungraded sand is
an absolute failure, it is full of voids and can be
worked only with a detrimental excess of water.
A great deal of similar concrete has gone into bases

of pavements and it is to be wondered at that
there are not more failures. This specification
would be no hardship on any crushing plant. It
is not necessary that the two or three sizes required
be mixed in a bin; they can be loaded on the cars
or trucks, one over the other and would be mixed
in unloading, at least in the case of cars unloaded
by shoveling. Mixing in bins -is undesirable for
another reason; a bin full of mixed sizes does not
stay mixed. There is the well known separation
by gravity, the large pieces always rolling to the
outside of the pile. If the bin is large enough a
‘ather close separation can be obtained by gravity.

€
c

MUST TAKE CONCESSIONS.

These, then, are concessions which quarrymen
must take for the sake of results, thorough screen-
ing in macadam stone and thorough mixing in
concrete stone, both within reasonable limits.
That State testing engineers and chemists are will-
ing to concede the ridiculous fractional sizes is
apparent from their prelimimary report. (Depart-
ment of Agriculture Bulletin No. 55.) They rec-
ommend the following screen perforations: 3, 2,
1,4,and+tinch. The nomenclature proposed con-
sists of the numbers 3, 2,1, $, and 0, corresponding to
the largest size contained in the grade. Thus No. 3
stone is 3-2 inches. Combinations of the numbers
are proposed; thus No. 1, 2, 3 means a mixture of
4,1, 2, and 3 inches. From the fact that this sys-
tem of designating grades is the very contrary of
the only system that has been at all firmly estab-
lished in any branch of the industry, that of the
granite quarries, it does not seem likely that its
adoption universally could be successfully urged.

The logical system of describing grades seems the
only one which we could hope to see adopted, that
of specifying the limiting sizes. In this system
stone for macadam base course would become 3-2
inches instead of No. 83 as is proposed, or instead of
‘Dhallast,” ‘‘macadam,” ‘‘2-inch stone,” or ‘‘3-inch
stone,” as is now the confusing practice in different
localities. Stone for cement concrete wearing sur-
face would be simply 2—{ inch instead of No. 12, as is
proposed. One-half inch ‘screenings would become
“1 inch and finer.” There can be no doubt that
the nomenclature would be universally intelligible
and, with the restrictions mentioned above, would
be accurate.

The First Conference of State Testing Engineérs
and Chemists evidently considered only road work;
the requirements of structural concrete must be
considered and this will probably add another
screen and grade—14 inch round perforations. This
will not be seriously objected to by crusher opera-
tors, 2-1} inch stone for second course macadam
will give very much better results than 2-1 inch.
For concrete 1$—+ inch material is vastly better,

is as easily worked and will be more acceptable
even for reenforced work than 1—} inch.

STANDARDIZATION DESIRABLE.

The adoption of standard sizes is possible. The
action of the Bureau of Public Roads in inaugurating
a movement to bring this about is to be highly com-
mended. Their engineers have shown a disposition
to meet the producer more than halfway. If, in
addition, other interests are considered, possibly
the American Society for Testing Materials, the
quarryman who has conformed his screening plant
to the standards prescribed, would have the highest
engineeting authority to protect him from the
whim or caprice of pedantic road builders and en-
gineers, and other engineers on their part, would
be assured of getting what they specify. To
recapitulate:

I. The-establishment of standard sizes of crushed
stone adopted throughout the States is possible
and highly desirable.

Il. To accurately define a grade of stone, screen
perforations, through and over which it passed
should be given. It should be universally under-
stood that (first) circular perforations are meant,
(second) that the screen is a revolving one, and
(third) that the screening plant is adequate so that
any one grade shall contain not more than 10 per
cent of fines (possibly 5 per cent) and not over 5 per
cent oversize by laboratory tests and that (fourth) a
mixture of various grades such as 2—} inch shall
contain not less than 25 per cent nor more than
50 per cent of ‘‘fines” passing through a 1-inch
screen, that is, through perforations having one-half
of the diameter of the maximum sizes permitted
in the mixture.

Ill. The following screen sections are proposed:
ope Layedjes) + nich.

IV. The nomencalture should be the logical one,
simply stating maximum and minimum sizes.

{As pointed out by Mr. Scherer, any movement to standardize sizes and nomen-
clature of crushed stone products should be and probably willbe heartily indorsed
by the industry. In fact the survey of present practice so far completed by the
Bureau of Public Roads would have been practically impossible without the
cooperation of the operators concerned, Although Mr, Scherer can see no reason
for any further survey of present conditions, the Bureau of Public Roads feels
that such a survey is not only desirable but necessary before final reeommenda-
tions can be made which will be generally acceptable.—Ep1toR.]

DECISION PREVENTS BUILDING.

Judge Paul Little, of the circuit court in western
Arkansas, has sustained 65 appeals against assess-
ments levied in the Scott County Road Improve-
ment District No. 1, which was created two years
ago to build 42 miles of road from Waldron west to
the Oklahoma State line and from Waldron to Man-
field, on the Sebastian County line. The decision
nullifies the district. The highway was to be a link
in the Albert Pike Highway, from Colorado Springs
to Hot Springs, and in the Bankhead Highway.

FEDERAL AID PROJECTS IN JULY

Federal aid projects approved in July were fewer ects, with a mileage of 24.89 miles, including bridges
than in any other month so far this year. The total and culverts on one, and for concrete or bituminous
number was only 46, the total mileage 394.061, surface and bituminous macadam roads, will cost
while the estimated cost of all the projects approved $587,260.30, for which a Federal aid allowance of
or for which agreements were signed during the $131,500 is made.
month is $3,530,511.66. The Federal aid allowance The largest single project for the month is 11
is $1,171,107.08. miles of brick road in Ford County, Kans., esti-

South Carolina had the largest number of projects mated to cost $386,848.66, or $35,168.06 a mile.
approved. These were six projects, with a total The allowance for this road is $58,027.30. The single
mileage of 57.8 miles, to cost $182,485.70, including project in Rhode Island is a bituminous macadam
the Federal aid allowance of $69,645.31. One of the road, 2.04 miles long, to cost $93,747.50, or $45,-.
projects is a concrete bridge to cost $22,545.82. 954.70 a mile, the highest average cost per mile.
Georgia followed South Carolina in the number of proj- The greatest allowance for a single project is
ects approved and in the total mileage. Herprojects $111,839.79 for a concrete road in Oklahoma,14.64
are five in number, with a mileage of 52.1 miles, to miles long, to cost $223,679.59.
cost $188,435.12 and an allowance of $85,318.41. The table gives in detail the projects approved

Ohio leads in the total cost of roads approved and and those for which the final agreement was exe-
receives the largest aggregate allowance. Four proj- cuted.

FEDERAL AID PROJECTS APPROVED DURING THE MONTH OF JULY, 1918.

- ; - * | Project | Project Behn ee es
sy rojec engt . state- agree- stimate edera
State. No. County. in miles. | Type of construction. ment ap-| ment cost. aid.
proved. executed. |
|
Manama.) 7c-0xc se tecnoc: 30 | Getieya tence... leas | S90. 85 iand-clay 1 oa oe ee ene ee July Sate eee $23, 285. 69 $11, 642. 84
ATIZONG. 25 .% SSSR. eee Zi Maricopa: esse asses B:Sialt CONCTOLC eins ote ee eee ase BO ee awenacians cece July 12 91, 779. 93 38, 600. 00
Connecticuite. Haseeee seams 3 | New London.......... | (80) BITUMINOUS MACAdAIN. sae ses eee eeee ee JULY Ss | seen eee ee 204, 953. 65 78, 000. 00
MIOLIC Ges Bese soe ste. aoas 54 Desotosseeeeies esses oe 2.50 | Brick or asphaltic concrete.........-... Julys 59 Saeco cet 44,173.91 | 20, 000. 00
Goorgia fe. oet aes pokes N 21 3) Hear ds eecset eee ee 8. 00 ie opsoil On sand-clayiee nema ase ete Tie AO sete alate cae eae 27, 658. 62 12,000. 00
24 | Cherokee.............- 13; 60 sisGravel and topsoil cece sees aaeaee cee JULY wiileGeas aces 60, 247.00 | 25, 000. 00
26)| Patildings sess secser 10.00 | Sand-clay or gravel.............-- spa geo Dalyell veleereeee oe 30, 767.00 | 15, 000. 00
Bly) Daderon... seeeeeere a: 10: 80:54 Topsoil and oravels-enseen. seen eee July e205 seers 50, 682. 50 24, 318. 41
32) Columbia seen 0770 (DOpsOLlLomenra yell eee eee tenes eee JULY ES een eee 19, 078. 40 9, 000. 00
DHINOIS 2. Wrest et ae eee see Oi MWA. Near oe eee 5. 20'al: Brick? 2s | otek ae Se eee JULY) SUNS a cseek we 132, 917. 50 37, 216. 90
LOWalt soos ce ee ere ae ZOWeMOnroes secon eee ee 9.00 i} Rarthscs Soe oe ee eee pes Tulys 2oueeee tere 33, 438. 90 16, 719. 45
IKANISAS! 22 6 Beer noe aera 14a Rord acs soetek aa tee eee 11; 00! Fi BricksS.2-8 of ees sagan ae ers ROU ee Bl Bacaceoe= A | 386, 848. 66 58, 027.30
Kentucky). 2ast sae CM Bar G oc wet tare ne 10.00 | Macadam surface treated...........--- Sta hea) eRe Aes ee ae | 60, 755. 20 30, 377. 60
Michigan -2:. 26 este) See Si Allegan * 2 peaecteiteea ots 700 Male Bittiain ousimns cada Tao at eee. see eerste | July 12} 158,399.13 70, 000. 00
LOMESt. J OSep OL e en aeee 3.97 | Stone bottom with gravel top.........|..-..-.-.- ee dOeee 49,011.38 24, 505. 00°
Montiang:.2" = eaeceeeeee toes Ol Madison= setae. wens | 10.00 | Graded and drained................... Jitlivie dl See eow= see 22, 880. 00 11, 440. 00
New Hampshire. ........-- 18 | Hillsborough. .......-.| +90" Gravel sean) c eee Ree ee eee Sly score ereeecee | 9, 020. 66 4,510. 33
New, MexICOs ese eects = ere 16" Lia aeue Mere soe 350 soe SL 25.4 Macs danas ac cates ey ee, tee ies eee Jia See seen es 25, 450. 70 12, 725. 35
‘LT: SRad gy eaten mee 5,00 ee dO. oe Ta _STEee Fe ar ies ae July ON ee ae 18, 385. 40 9,192. 70
Nowe Viorkis: JF.c5e 2 ee TOW Rockland fer sacaseeee 2.47 | Bituminous macadam or concrete..... bl hyew Wie Se a oes 49, 399. 35 24, 699. 67
LA OTang Osanna mee eee O50 ese ee 6s 22 Ree ee 2 Pee ee eee wet Olgeerhee eee ae 51, 726. 40 25, 863. 20
WortheDakotas: = sess ees 67) Ml ralllg see tebe Ae 25.15 Gl Marth ees. nase aco peeen eee eee eee JULyAlSy|eseee ane | 23, 519. 10 11, 759. 55
21); BOUSQU: tosae eee es in) 24.20 “Graded Garulie am Gana in eae Semmes cn Sul y= LO gee ee 27, 804. 13 13, 902. 06
29 oteele Sie ihe cee nee 19.45 ibarth 2 seen eer eee ote ie aerate AGW: OBS lan Ge a | 21, 627. 10 10, 813. 55
SL) UA CULO tae de eee eel Ac O0 meee C0222 Se Oe ee eee ees UL yar acon eee 7, 532. 80 3, 766. 40
Onios ca, Bake Son Be es Fs 15) |i Madisonec..deeee ase | 12.80 | Concrete or bituminous surface. ....... JUL be ees eee | 331,136. 52 70, 000. 00
164 Clarice sss =e eeepc A083. Bieecen downs tS A 2 Se eee pAeke oe See eet: 138, 347. 54 34, 600. 00
de eee (Veer fal 4.47 | Bituminous macadam.............-..- pW get ste aS oc 122, 076. 24 14, 400. 00
22) GUGITISG Vie see een ee | 2.69 | Grading, bridges, and culverts. ...-..- Julye “Osea seers 27, 700. 00 12, 500. 00
Oljahoms ose ee -ete eo : D1, Eee Vall eee oe eee 14./64-<[| Concrete astm: sheer re cee eee eee July) Sloe | 223, 679. 59 111, 889. 79
Rhode Island 2:22. 3-24-/ Se 2)| ‘Washington..:.-..2.-- 2.04 | Bituminous macadam._................ JY LOG | see costae 93, 747. 50 20, 400. 00
South. Carolina......----.-- 2 | Spartanburg........-. 14590 «Concrete or, bricks: fopsoles: ame eet ceicel semieicie sete July 27 121, 716. 58 48, 577. 87
| toh [alate Nail oyeN Peete ote oad 12, LZ Sli Sand-clay. scence cease eee eon eee ee July e224 oes... eat 26, 122. 36 10, 771.14
OUIPINOW DEITY coeees ces | 5.63 Gl) Lopsoll seo) seven so een ee Waly 619) eee tered 16, 178. 58 8, 089. 29
10} Lancastersets-e take. 22034 9)"Gravel or macadam...350.....22.02 ue (valy. 2422 eee ee 49, 296. 50 17, 000. 00
DL AwChestor oak see ee 9:46 dl Sand-clavy se itm s 25s eee ee ee Bs Oniaaialseae te piaeeee 53, 769. 42 18, 784. 88
145) McCormick sn. . 3. ee 1 Oe 2O) Sal OPSOLG eee aap ee een ec Smee en lye sla |ceseeees | 14, 578. 02 6, 000. 00
LOWE oes CONE RN BE Se ere -15 | Concrete bridge.......... ae Bae eel eee AQ sw isalemeeete aes 22, 545. 82 9, 000. 00
MOKAS: egerbu cae es eucee ares 224\ DD AaSe: eee eee] D1 eae ee ee eet fe en hh Bs hs A ene AS ot | Gee eae July 31 | 20, 792. 20 10, 200. 00
Wirginia® 6 0: e tees case oes 13 | pi aeOne and) ) King (629)6:9321) Grevvells osc qeeeee eer a epee ae Wednalya | 5 ae eee | 59, 263. 28 29, 631. 64
| eorge.

Wiashingtoncceee- oes ceeeon 132) sOkAnOPaN: ea sems aes | 1.077 | Gravel with two bridges.............. July 31 33, 195. 80 13, 789. 67
T43 Somes Oe ek eee mee oe te 2. 40) | SGESVOl fea ce ee eee oe ee ee ere re. doses} 16, 556. 70 8, 278. 35
LS.) See O45. 2 es oeeee ay re aN ers dO sh ewahe dos cee nn ae eee ee |...do 22,985. 56 11, 447. 98
West Virginia.¢2.0 eR - G6) Mineral’: cece ede se ee | 28° WEACONCTCLG2 ..2cat oe ee ot ae eco cape We ene ae 14, 530. 84 6, 381. 00
Hod Nard) eC ES ORE or ier | 1:00) slaaeee GO pok AE ae pee el duly ya 25, 650. 00 6, 650. 00
19! FO nig Sars eecnteee eee | O72) lees WOss es a ee .| July 3 11, 435. 25 5, 680. 00
PAU ABT ayeha foley ene | OOSal means OO Sea, cate aril hays socal tn eet bye G3 19, 104. 36 5, 415. 00
Wasconsines..--peeaor ec LOG) Walworth seston eet eee | 82 goer CLO he Sie ee te eto ea | eae ee eee 33, 745. 36 11, 248. 45
11 | Milwaukee...........- DORMS EE GO Boer cits See inca ie ce at ae aie 52, 903. 51 17, 634. 50
18 | Oneida... <2 2th nen es MN ae200%, (esa Ons ac ae A ee re ee ee || ae ee 18, 455. 36 2,818. 45
32 | Winnebago...........-. | S52 aloe dosh 2 TO pe eS te ae | F8 74, 721. 20 24, 907. 07
33 | Fond du Lac.......... | B10 Pll Sorrare Gow a. Feet eee ST ul yeaa 74, 990. 30 24, 956. 33
48 iG MOnt0e aoe ae | TL Odie) Warthe.se eee tee tee July 24 42, 500. 30 14, 316. 66
49 UO Wiatipacat>.saenme sa | 10.10 | Earth, surfaced in part...-- pos O ce se 31, 861. 25 10, 620. 41
: ; 505) Ozaukee. .socnaeese se. 1.92 | Bituminous macadam......-. = LGOzand 17, 556. 88 5, 852. 29
Wiryomingwirb< ge ceace's so 58 2Or Sheridan's e-eeseeees- | 8.02 | Concrete or asphaltic gravel. ...-. July 2 169, 380. 45 80, 200. 00
nce een Rite (pope tire ae OM MRGEE. pe" TT | 304.069 |.......... Rea Le POM IRL Las | 3, 530, 511.66 | 1, 171, 107.08

AMERICAN RED CROSS A BUILDER
OF ROADS AND TOWNS IN ITALY

Hi American Red Cross in its wonderful work
for the victims,of war has developed activities
in a hundred different directions. It is not

only caring for the wound-
ed and sick and feeding
the hungry, but is work-
ing most effectually to
house the homeless refu-
gees from the battle dev-
astated lands.

The Red Cross forces
have now been in Italy for
several months. They
preceded the arrival of
American troops on the
Italian front, and gave to
Italy the first demonstra-
tion of American partici-
pation in the struggle that
country ismaking. Early
reports which came from
Italy showed the enthu-
siasm with which the first
contingents were wel-
comed, and later ones com-
ing from time to time em-
phasize the various activi-
ties the workers are en-
gaged in.

The work in caring for
the refugees from the war
zone in northern Italy has
attracted much attention.
There have been great
numbers of these refugees,
and homes have had to be
found for them. The Red
Cross representatives have
undertaken and carried
out this task. In doing
this the Red Cross has
built houses, even com-
plete villages, with streets,
stores and schoolhouses.

Just outside of Pisa there has been constructed
a model village. It was built in cooperation with
Italian architects, the work being done by Italian
laborers. On April 1 the site was an apple orchard,
by August 1 the village was complete, housing 2,000

BY THE AMERICAN RED CROSS, LOOKING TOWARD THE CITY,
TION IN THE MODEL VILLAGE,

people. The town contains houses, stores, shops,
and workrooms, a church and school, .all of cement
and concrete. Great attention was paid to the water

TOP: VIEW OF CONSTRUCTION WORK OF MODEL VILLAGE IN THE OUTSKIRTS OF PISA, ITALY,

BOTTOM: ROAD CONST RUC-

supply, sewage disposal and sanitation. The reports
are that this Italian village will rival in sanitation
all leading suburbs. The roads were constructed of
native material, were well built, and it is hoped they
will be a model to other small communities.

(21)

SOME STATE HIGHWAY BUILDERS

N THE opposite page are the portraits of
State highway officials who are bringing
their States to the front in the building of
The list includes men active from
New England and the South Atlantic coast to the
Pacific Northwest. Other portraits and sketches
will follow in future issues.

The highway work of Nebraska is looked after by
the State engineer. The present occupant of the
position is George IK. Johnson. Mr. Johnson was
at Beatrice, Nebr., in 1881. He received
degrees in civil, electrical and mechanical engineer-
ing at the Armour Institute, Chicago, in 1902.
For 18 months he was employed on the St. Louis &
Iron Mountain Railway in Arkansas. For the next
two years he was superintendent of electrical con-
struction for the Swift Packing Co. Following this
he opened an office as consulting engineer at St.
Joseph, Mo., remaining there until 1907, and after-
wards maintained offices at Holton and Sabetha,
Kans., and Falls City, Nebr. In 1915 he was
appointed State engineer of Nebraska.

Thomas Harris McDonald, chief engineer of the
Iowa State Highway Commission, was born in 1881
at Leadville, Colo. He attended the public schools
of Poweshiek County, Iowa, and, for one: year,
Iowa State Teachers’ College at Cedar Falls. In
1890 he graduated from Iowa State College in the
civil engineering course. He was with the Chicago
Great Western Railroad fora time on track work.
In 1904 he became assistant professor of civil
engineering at Iowa State College and placed in
charge of road investigation work. In 1906 he was
appointed highway engineer with the first State
highway commission and held this position until
1913, when he was made chief engineer of the present
reorganized State highway commission. He is also
supervisor of State roads, a position which places
him in charge of all highways and streets adjoining
or upon State farms, State institutions, and the
State capitol at Des Moines. Mr. McDonald is a
member of the executive committee of the American
Association of State Highway Officials.

The State road commissioner of Florida is Witliam
I. Cocke, born in Powhatan County, Va., February
7, 1875. Mr. Cocke started work as a rodman on a
railroad survey. He was employed until 1907 on
railroad location and construction work, and for a
short time with the engineering department of
Richmond, Va. In 1908 he took a position with
the Virginia State highway commission, and ad-
vanced through various grades to division and
maintenance engineer. In May, 1916, he

better roads.

born

was

appointed State road commissioner of Florida.
In this position he is the chief engineer of the State
road department and its executive officer.

The legislature of 1917 greatly enlarged the powers
and authority of the department and provided for
the expenditure of 85 per cent of the State registra-
tion tax on motor vehicles for maintenance of State
and State-aid roads in each of the 54 counties of
Florida, all expenditures to be under the supervision
of the State commissioner.

Charles Joseph Bennett was born in Frome, Eng-
land, February 9, 1878, and was brought to this
country when 2 years old. He graduated from the
high school at Amsterdam, N. Y., in 1897 and from
Union College in 1901, with the degree of bachelor
of engineering. After his graduation Mr. Bennett
was employed by the city engineer of Amsterdam.
The following year he went to the Metropolitan
Street Railway Co., New York City; in 1903 to the
New York Central Railroad, and in 1905 to Hart-
ford, Conn., with the New York, New Haven &
Hartford Railway Co. In 1909 he entered the serv-
ice of the State, working on the Saybrook Bridge.
In 1910 he was made superintendent of streets of
Hartford, and in 1913 was appointed by Gov. Bald-
win State highway commissioner, and has remained
in office through reappointments.

Commissioner Bennett has written a handbook,

“Highway Engineering,’ has contributed to tech-

nical periodicals, lectured at Columbia College and
the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, and has deliv-
ered addresses throughout Connecticut and in other
States on road questions and engineering topics.
He is a member of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, the International Permanent Congress
de la Rute, a director of the Massachusetts Highway
Association, and a member of the American High-
way Association, American Road Association, Na-
tional Highway Association, National Society of
Civil Engineers, Connecticut Society of Civil Engi-
neers, Rotary Club, and the University Club.

The State highway commissioner of Georgia,
Warren Rabun Neel, was born near Atlanta, that
State, in 1882. He was educated at the Georgia
Military Institute, founded by his father, and the
Georgia School of Technology. In 1901 he went to
Mexico to work on the National Railroad of that
country. For 12 years he maintained an engineer-
ing office in Mexico City and Tampico, being em-
ployed in various engineering enterprises. At one
time he was superintendent of construction of the
street railways of Mexico City. He abandoned that

(Continued on page 48.)

|. GEO.E. JOHNSON, NEB.
2.THOS.H.MSDONALD, IA.
3.WM. F. COCKE, FLA.
A.GHAS.J. BENNETT,GONN.
5.W.R.NEEL,GA.
G.JAMES ALLEN,

STATE HIGHWAY MANAGEMENT,
CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE

By M. O. ELDRIDGE, Assistant in Road Economics, G. G. CLARK and A. L. LUEDKE, Engineer Economist of the Bureau of Public Roads.

on State highway management, control, and

procedure. In this number are presented the
chapters on ten additional States. Hach one takes
up the development and results of State par-
ticipation and control of road work and the relation
of State to local control; organization, personnel,
duties and powers of State and local road officials;
classification of State and local roads with particular
reference to control and basis of payment, including
methods of selection, powers of State highway de-
partments in granting aid, procedure in making
surveys, letting contracts, and the control exercised
by the State and local officials over road construc-
tion and maintenance; sources of State and local
funds, basis of allotment and apportionment of State
funds, and the relation of State to local funds, and
the amount available for road purposes during the
latest calendar or fiscal year.

ie the August number appeared the first chapters

COLORADO

DEVELOPMENT.

State participation in road improvement in Colo-
rado is of State-wide scope and consists of money
aid, technical advice, and supervision, and was first
evidenced in 1908 by the employment of State con-
victs on the improvement of certain roads designated
by the legislature

A highway commission was created in 1909 with
advisary powers over all roads of the State and had
at its disposal a fund for State-aid to the various
counties.

The laws relating to State-aid and State highway
officials have been modified and strengthened from
time to time until at present the highway depart-
ment of Colorado is well organized, has funds at its
disposal for State participation in road work through-
out the State, and exercises to a limited extent su-
pervisory and advisory powers over local work exe-
cuted by county officials.

A system of State roads comprising about 18 per
cent of the total road mileage of the State com-
posed of roads chosen by the various county boards
with the approval of the State highway department
has been designated as State routes from which a
system of State highways will be selected for im-

provement with State and local funds by the State
highway department.

The State legislature from time to time has pro-
vided special appropriations for the construction of
bridges in various counties of the State.

At the close of 1916, about 1,800 miles, or 44 per
cent of the total mileage of public roads had been
improved by hard surfacing. In 1916, $607,728 of
State funds and $662,829 of local funds. we ad ex-

i ie f
the State

unds.,
pended by or under the supervision” oF

highway department. The total expenditures by
State and local forces reached $2,313,208 in the
same year. In 1917 they totaled $2,570,000.

State participation in road work was delayed by
lack of funds during the period 1911 to 1913, due to
the fact that the law providing State funds for con-
struction purposes was declared unconstitutional.

ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the road forces of the State
and the releuon existing between, the ms Shown by
chart on page 2 aD ie

State. ihe State highway department, composed
of the State highway ‘commission, State highway
commissioner, his assistants and employees, is in
charge of all road improvements for which the
State provides funds wholly or in part.

The commission is composed of five members ap-
pointed by the governor for terms of five years, one
being appointed each year from one of the five dis-
tricts into which the State is divided by law. The
commission has general charge over the establish-
ment, revision, construction, and maintenance of
the proposed State highway system; the financial af-
fairs of the State highway department, and the
preparation of a yearly budget of proposed opera-
tions of the department. The affirmative vote of all
members is required for any action proposed. In

case they fail to agree, decision is made by the
governor.

The State highway commissioner may be removed
from office by the vote of all members of the commis-
sion. If they fail to agree, the governor, acting with
the majority of the commission, decides the matter.
In case of removal the successor to the commissioner
is appointed by the commission to serve the re-
mainder of the term for which the removed official
was appointed. The State highway commissioner
is appointed by the governor for a term of four

(24)

ie Sol ieee el

_CONVICT LABOR ~

| WARDEN
STATE --
| PENITENTIARY

years and is required to designate an employee of the

department to act as deputy in case of absence or
incapacity of the commissioner.

The commissioner is the executive official of the
department and, subject to the orders of the com-
mission, is in charge of all matters pertaining to road
improvement financed wholly or in part by State
funds. He appoints from lists of eligibles furnished
by the commission such assistant employees as may
bebneeded. The State civil-service. regulations do
not extend to these employees. All payments made

STATE HIGHWAYS AND STATE ROUTES

STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSION

PEOPLE
LEGISLATURE
GOVERNOR

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The 39,739 miles of public road in Colorado are
divided by statute for the purpose of fixing respon-
sibility for construction, control, and maintenance
into two groups, State highways and county high-
ways.

State highways.—These comprise the roads chosen
by the State highway commission from the system
of 7,083 miles of State routes. They are improved
under the immediate control of the State highway
commissioner with State and local funds and main-

COLORADO

LOCAL ROADS

SECRETARN

STATE HIGHWAY GOMMISSIONER

CHIEF ENGINEER

APVISORY

ON REQUEST

STENOGRAPHERS

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

ASST ENGINEERS

CO-OPERATES ON STATE WORK EOGAR ROSES

BOARD OF COUNTY GOMM’RS —

INSPECTORS

FOREMEN — CONTRACTORS
CONVICT LABOR |

out of funds at the disposal of the department must
bear the approval of the commissioner.
County.—County supervision over road affairs is
vested in a board of commissioners, consisting of
three members elected for a term of four years. The
county clerk and county treasurer, elective officials,
are clerk and fiscal agent, respectively, of the board.
In all counties of the State, except Denver and those
counties in which the road funds are less than
$12,000 annually, the county board may elect a
county road supervisor who is skilled in road build-
ing and who acts as the executive official of the
board in all matters pertaining to roads and bridges
under their control, and who has power to form road
districts for the purpose of road dragging and other
minor repairs. The board may divide the county
into districts and appoint a general road overseer
who, with the consent of the board, appoints deputy
overseers for each district.
to levy and raise taxes and to enter into contracts for

road and bridge improvement.

GENL ROAD OVERSEER

The board has the power’

CONVICT LABOR LABOR }

tained by State forces at the jomt expense of the
State and county.

The State route system comprises all roads desig-
nated prior to 1917 as State highways and such other
roads as in the opinion of the commission should be
added thereto. It is the intent of the State law that
the State highways shall not be set apart from the
State route system unless they have been improved
or until funds are avaliable for their improvement.
State routes may be improved and maintained as
State routes by means of a joint fund supplied by the
State and county in such proportion as may be
mutually agreed to by the State and local officials.
Federal funds, with the approval of the Secretary of
Agriculture, may be used for the construction of
either State highways or State routes. Construction
of either the State highways or State routes is done
under the supervision of the State highway commis-
sioner either by force account, convict labor, with
the approval of the warden of the State penitentiary,
or may be let by contract. When executed by con-

=).

nnd

tract, let by the State or by the State and county,

payments are made on order of the State highway
commissioner.

County highways.—These comprise all public
roads of the State not specifically designated by the
State highway commission as State highways or
State routes. They are constructed and main-
tained by county forces with county funds. Con-
victs from the State penitentiary, on application of
the county board and with the approval of the war-
den of the penitentiary, may be employed on county
roads. » All excess expense in connection with such
employment is borne by the county. State routes
are included in this system until withdrawn by
action of the State highway commission.

REVENUES.

The State highway fund for the year ending
November 30, 1917, was composed of receipts ob-
tained from the following sources:

1. From the proceeds of a 4 mill State-wide tax
levied on all taxable property in the State, $592,615.

2. By appropriation by the State legislature.

3. Receipts of the internal-improvement perma-
nent fund and the internal-improvement income
fund, $153,110.

4. From 50 per cent of the fees levied on motor
vehicles and chauffeurs for lcense purposes and
from 50 per cent of the fines and penalties accruing
from violation of the motor-vehicle laws, $141,966.

5. From all public contributions, including those
made by the United States Government or a depart-
ment thereof. Such funds are to be expended in
strict accordance with the terms of the contribu-
tions.

Local.—F rom 50 per cent of the fees levied on
motor vehicles and chauffeurs as license fees, and
from 50 per cent of the fines and penalties accruing
from violation of the motor-vehicle laws. This
fund is added to the proceeds of a tax levied by the
county board at a rate which may not exceed $1
on each $100 of valuation. The combined fund is
known as the county road and bridge fund.

Bonds.—Bonds may be issued for road and bridge
purposes by the county boards when authorized by
a majority vote of the tax-paying qualified electors
of a county. Bond issues are limited as follows:
Counties having a valuation between one and five
millions may issue bonds to the amount of $12 for
each $1,000 of valuation. When the valuation of a
county exceeds $5,000,000, the limit is $6 for each
$1,000 of valuation.

NEW YORK COST OF ROAD LABOR.

In the Ogdensburg region in Northern New York
the labor of a man and team on the State road is
now costing $7 a day.

CONNECTICUT.

DEVELOPMENT.

By its early start, its well founded policies, its
liberal appropriations, aad its gradual development
from local to centralized control, Connecticut has,
by State participation, accomplished a fairly com-
prehensive and connected system of improved roads.
The State now controls approximately 11.5 per cent
of the road mileage and contributes about 74 per
cent annually of all road expenditures.

The State highway department was organized in
1895 with three commissioners in charge and a
State-aid appropriation to counties and towns of
$150,000 for the biennial period. The State was
divided into three districts and one commissioner
had charge of the work in each district. The law
provided that the State, county, and towns each
pay one-third of the cost of State-aid roads.

In 1897 State control was still further centralized
by placing one commissioner in charge of all State-
aid work. The organization has not been changed
since that time and the administrative head of the
department has been changed only once. The 1897
law limited State aid to towns only, and the State
and towns were to share equally in the cost. The
law of 1899 increased the State’s share to two-thirds
in the richer towns and three-fourths in the poorer
towns. In 1907 this was increased to three-fourths
and seven-eighths, respectively.

A connected system of trunk-line roads, over which
the State exercises complete control and pays the en-
tire cost of construction and maintenance, was pro-
vided in 1907. This system includes 1,500 miles, of
which 950 miles have been improved. There are
about 520 miles of road which have been surfaced, and
195 miles reconstructed through the aid of the State.

State funds available for trunk-line and State-aid
work for the biennial period October 1, 1917, to
September 30, 1919, will amount to approximately
$7,224,000, including estimated receipts from auto-
mobile registration fees, while the total State funds
expended for road work from 1895 to September 30,
1917, amount to $20,923,752. The trunk-line and
State-aid roads are systematically maintained by the
State under the patrol and gang systems. Out of a
total of 14,061 miles of public roads, 3,100 miles, or
about 22 per cent, had been surfaced up to January 1,
1917, thus showing that the State has been ‘respon-
sible for about one-half of the total improvement.

In 1916 the State expended $1,950,948 for con-
struction, maintenance, and engineering, of which
$85,000 was contributed from local funds. In
addition to this, the local authorities expended for

the same period approximately $1,250,000, making

in all $3,285,948. In 1917 the total expenditures
from all sources were $4,004,225.

“ee

ORGANIZATION.

The highway organization of the State and the
relation existing between the local and State forces
is shown in the diagram on this page.

State.—The State highway department is con-
trolled by a commissioner appointed by the gov-
ernor with the advice and consent of the senate for
a term of four years. The law provides that he
must be a capable road builder. The present com-
missioner is not only the administrative and execu-
tive head of the department, but, being an engineer

*
)

to maintain town roads, the boards of county com-
missioners of the various counties may have the
work done when petitioned to do so; otherwise,
county officials have practically no authority over
roads, and the power to take over roads for mainte-
nance is seldom exercised,

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND. PROCEDURE.

The public roads of Connecticut, comprising 14,061
miles, are, for the purpose of fixing responsibility of
construction, control, and maintenance, divided into
three groups—trunk-line, State-aid, and town roads.

STATE

i
STATE TRUNK LINES ANDO STATE AID ROADS

STATE HIGHWAY COMM’R

“PEOPLE
LEGISLATURE
GOVERNOR

CONNECTICUT

LOCAL

ADVISORY

DEPUTY COMMISSIONER CHIEF CLERK
CONSTRUCTION

STENOGRAPHER

CHIEF DRAFTSMAN

TESTING |

DRAFTSMEN

BRIDGE

DIVISION ENGINEERS 6

SUPERVISORS

OFFICE ENGINEER

INSPECTORS

CONTRACTORS- FOREMEN

HIRED LABOR

he also has charge of the engineering work. All
subordinate employees are appointed by the com-
missioner and are under the civil service.

The department ts divided into two main branches,
namely, construction. and maintenance. <A deputy
commissioner has charge of construction, with six
division engineers under him in charge of field work.
There is also under the deputy commissioner a bridge
foreman, who has charge of all repairs on trunk-line

bridges. A superintendent of repairs has charge of
maintenance with one assistant superintendent and
11 supervisors of repairs in charge of field work.
The clerical and accounting work of the department
is handled by a chief clerk.

Local.—The boards of selectmen of the various
towns have full authority over public roads other
than trunk-line and State-aid roads. These boards
usually consist of three. or more members elected
annually at the town meetings. Some towns have a
town engineer or other official who has immediate
charge of town roads. If selectmen refuse or neglect

SUPERINTENDENT OF REPAIRS

ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT

MAINTENANCE

OFFICE ENGINEER |

See
VISORS OF REPAIR |
SUPERVISORS OF REPAIRS {1 | ——

TOWN ROADS

BD. CO. COMMRS.
FOREMEN- GANGS PATROLMEN

TOWN ENGINEER

BD. TWN.SELECTMEN

HIRED LABOR

CONTRACTORS, FOREMEN, SUPTS, ETC ]

HIRED LABOR |

Trunk-line reads are selected by the State highway
commissioner with the approval of the legislature,
and comprise 950 miles of the most important main
traveled roads of the State. They are constructed
and maintained entirely at the expense of the State
with funds appropriated solely for use on trunk lines.
The State highway department has ‘complete control
and supervision of construction and maintenance of
trunk-line roads, and of all bridges on such roads hav-
ing a span of 25 feet or more. The highway depart-
ment also has charge of the elimination of grade cross-
ings and other dangerous places on trunk lines.

When bridges of 25-foot span or over on trunk-line

roads are constructed within a town, the cost is

borne equally by the State and town. If such
bridges are built between towns, one-half of the
cost is paid by the towns in proportion to the
assessed valuation of each. If located between
counties, the counties are required to pay one-fourth
each of the cost. Trolley companies using bridges
are required to pay one-third of the cost.

All work costing more than $1,000 .is let by con-
tract by the State highway commissioner. ‘Trunk-
line roads are maintained by the State under the
gang and patrol systems, the gang system being
largely used. Funds for this purpose are derived
from State appropriations and the receipts from the
automobile registration fees-

State-aid roads, comprising 520 miles on January
1, 1918, are designated by the selectmen of the
various towns with the approval of the State high-
way commissioner. They are constructed and
maintained under the supervision of the State high-
way department. They are not links in a compre-
hensive system, but an effort is being made by the
highway department to have them connected on
continuous lines. Surveys, plans, specifications,
and estimates are made by the State and submitted
to the town selectmen for approval. The work is
done by contract let by the State highway commis-
sioner. ‘Towns may submit bids for doing the work
in their own limits and work costing less than $1,000
may be let without advertising.

In towns having an assessed valuation exceeding
$1,250,000 the State pays three-fourths the cost of
construction, and in towns having a valuation of
$1,250,000 or less, the State pays seven-eighths of
the cost. Payments are made by the State until
the State allotment is exhausted, then the State
comptroller bills the town for its share of the cost.
Upon completion of construction, the State assumes
responsibility for maintenance, but the towns are
required to pay one-fourth of the cost:

‘Town roads include all other roads not referred to
in the above groups. The work of construction and
maintenance of town roads and bridges is done
under the direction of the town selectmen.

REVENUES.

State.—Appropriations are made by the legisla-
ture for two-year periods. The amount appropri-

ated and the purposes for which the appropriations

were made for the two-year period, October 1, 1917,
to September 30, 1919, are as follows:

Trunk-line construction, $1,500,000.

Trunk-line maintenance and reconstruction, $1,000,000 and auto fees.
State-aid construction, $1,000,000,

State-aid maintenance and reconstruction, $350,000 and refunds.
Trunk-line bridges, $450,000 and refunds.
Elimination of dangerous conditions on trunk lines,
Thames River bridge, $450,000.

Drawbridges and ferries, $66,700.

Niantie River bridge, $80,000.

Miscellaneous for salaries and administration of highway department, $253,000

$75,000 and refunds.

To this should be added the receipts from auto-

mobile registration fees which are used for the main-

tenance of trunk-line roads, and will amount to
approximately $2,000,000 for the two years referred
to, thus making a grand total of State funds avail-
able for the two fiscal years, exclusive of refunds, of
approximately $7,224,700, or $3,612,350 per annum.
These funds are expended at the discretion of the

State highway commissioner, except that no town

can receive more than $20,000 State-aid money’

during a two-year period.
Local.—It is estimated that the towns are now
expending under local control approximately

$1,250,000 per annum for construction and mainte- |

nance of local roads and bridges. The funds for

town roads are usually paid from the town budget —

tax.

Bonds.—No local bonds are issued, but from time
to time the State has issued bonds for roads and
other purposes. In 1907, and again in 1911, when
deficits occurred in the State treasury, there were
issued to cover them a total of $7,000,000 of State
bonds, the larger portion of which was appropriated
to pay the State’s share of State-aid and trunk-line
roads.

DELAW ARE.

DEVELOPMENT.

State participation in road work in Delaware is of
recent origin. The present policy of the State is to
build and maintain entirely at State expense a
system of State highways and to aid the counties by
annual donations amounting to $10,000 for each
county. The State will exercise complete control
over the proposed system of State highways which
will include about 5 per cent of the total road
mileage of the State.

The first State-aid law was enacted in 1903.
This provided money aid to the amount of $10,000
per annum for each of the three counties to be
expended with an equal amount raised by the
counties under a State highway commissioner for
each county. In 1905 this law was changed by
providing a State highway commissioner for each of
the counties of New Castle and Kent. Shortly
after this law was enacted, Kent County ceased to
avail itself of the right to use the State highway
commissioner, and all State-aid work was handled
by county engineers in Kent and Sussex from that
time to the present. From 1903 to 1917 about 180
miles of road, more or less, disconnected, were con-
structed under this State-aid system. In addition
to the money appropriated for each county, $1,000

was appropriated by the general assembly, to pay

the salary of the State highway commissioner for
New Castle County. |

The legislature of 1917 created a State highway
department and provided for the construction,
reconstruction, and maintenance of a system of State
highways entirely at the expense of the State.
This system is to include about 650 miles of road
and the cost of construction and reconstruction is
to be paid from the fund derived from State bond
issues, proceeds of the automobile licenses and State

Pag. ee

Pp are a pm ARE cm a ge a RRS Ria FEN tend las ina Vite Mas <2 ea

Pal

4 income tax.

Thus the State has two systems of
roads under its jurisdiction or to which it contributes

money aid, namely, State-aid roads and State high-

ways, each controlled by separate and distinct sets
of officials with apparently no coordination of
authority.

Local road and bridge expenditures not under
State control now amount to approximately $250,000
per annum. ‘otal expenditures from all sources in
1917 amounted to $321,600. The State has 3,674
miles of road, of which 275 miles, or 8 per cent, have

been improved.

who is appointed by the State highway commis-
sion, three members concurring in his appoint-
ment. He must be a civil engineer not less than 30
years of age, shall have been in active service of his
profession for 10 years, and shall have had responsi-
ble charge of engineering work for at least five
years, and shall be qualified to design and direct
road work. Graduation from a school of engineering
of recognized reputation shall be equivalent to two
years of active practice. The chief engineer may be
paid a salary of $7,500 per annum. He has charge
of all-engineering work for the highway commission,

PEOPLE ARE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY BE aM
GOVERNOR
STATE
a
Ses HIGHWAYS
STATE HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT
CLERICAL ; LOCAL
SECRETARY & AUDITOR ‘ 5
_ENGINEERING
SHER ENCINEER = = — —) 2 = Se ees oY ee as
SURVEYS & ESTIMATES CONSTRUCTION
PRINCIPAL ASST. ENGINEER SECOND ASST. ENGINEER |}——
MAINTENANCE ENGINEER BRIOGE ENGINEER ASSISTANT ENGINEERS ]
*| ASST. ENGINEERS ] GANGS PATROLS ] ASST. ENGINEERS CONTRACTORS, ETC,
[ LABORERS |
Ah Sea, Sane COUNTY _ANO STATE AID ROADS
NO STATE AID ROADS ____ foe nag? Sy FEE, Oe Gee een ed
| |
| |
NEW CASTLE COUNTY KENT COUNTY SUSSEX COUNTY
STATE AID ROADS * COUNTY ROADS
STATE HIGHWAY GOMMISSIONER ;-—- — — LEVY COURT ; LEVY COURT

SUPERVISORS

COUNTY ROAD ENGINEER

ASST. ENGINEER

LABORERS
SUPERVISORS

LABORERS

* ROADS UNDER COUNTY BOND ISSUES

ORGANIZATION.

The highway organizations of the State and the

relations existing between them and the local

— ae ae iat

forces are shown on the diagram above.
State.—The State highway department which has
control of the construction and maintenance of
State highways is composed of the governor and
four members appointed by the governor. The
terms of office of the first commissioners appointed
are two, four, six and eight years, respectively.
After the expiration of the terms of the first commis-
sioners they are appointed for the full term of eight
years. They serve without compensation and not
more than two members shall belong to the same
political party. One member must be a resident of
the city of Wilmington, one a resident of New
Castle County outside of the city, one from Kent
County, and one from Sussex County. The admin-

istrative head of the department is the chief engineer,
S

LEVY COURT

COUNTY ROAD ENGR.

SUPERVISORS

CONTRACTORS ETC.

LABORERS

COUNTY ROAD ENGR.

SUPERVISORS

CONTRACTORS ETC.

LABORERS

and upon its approval may act as consulting engineer
for the counties. He must. approve the construc-
tion of the bond-built roads in New Castle County.
The commission is authorized to appoint a secretary,
whose salary may not be more than $3,000 per
annum. On the recommendation of the chief
engineer, the department also appoints such tech-
nical and clerical employees as may be necessary.
A State highway commissioner for New Castle
County controls the roads constructed in that
county with joint State and county funds, and coop-
erates with the levy court in the construction of
roads improved with funds derived from bond
issues. He is appointed by the governor for a term
of four years and must be a resident of New Castle
County. If he also holds the position of county
engineer, his salary is $2,500, of which the State
pays $1,000, and the county of New Castle $1,500.
The State aid funds appropriated for Kent and
Sussex Counties are expended under the direction

of the county engineers of those counties without
any State control or jurisdiction. The annual
appropriation of those two counties, therefore, prac-
tically amounts to a donation on the part of the State,
but the funds appropriated by the State must be ex-
pended together with an equal amount raised by the
counties for improvement and maintenance of roads.

Local.—The levy courts are responsible for the
improvement, repair, and maintenance, financing,
and management of local roads in each county. In
Sussex County the levy court is composed of three
members, who are elected for 6 years, each of whom
receives $1,200 per annum. In Sussex County the
levy court appoints a county engineer at $1,800 per
annum. <All local and State aid work is carried on
under the immediate direction of the engineer and
the supervisors who are appointed by him. In
Kent County the levy court of 10 members appoints
the county road engineer at $1,500 per annum. All
local and State-aid work is handled by the engineer
and the supervisors, of whom there is one appointed
by the levy court for each district or hundred. There
are seven members of the levy court in New Castle
County, in which permanent improvements are
carried on under the direction of the State highway
commissioner for the county and such supervisors
as may be appointed by him. These supervisors
receive $3 per day for time actually employed and
must be practical men experienced in road con-
struction, All maintenance work in New Castle
County outside of the city of Wilmington is handled
by the county supervisor who is appointed by and
reports to the county engineer.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The public roads of Delaware are for the pur-
pose of fixing responsibility for construction, con-
trol, and maintenance, divided into three groups,
namely, State highways, State-aid roads, and
county roads.

State highways.—This is a tentative system of
roads, at present embracing about 650 miles, which
it is proposed to take over and permanently im-
prove and maintain entirely at the expense of the
State. The entire jurisdiction over this system for
selection, construction, and maintenance is invested
in the State highway department established during
1917. No State bonds have been issued, no State
highways have yet been constructed. However, the
State has taken over part of this system, about 19
miles of road known as the Coleman Du Pont Boule-
vard, which was construeted by Gen. Coleman Du
Pont entirely at his own expense. That portion
which is already completed starts at the Maryland
line in the southern part of the State and extends
in a northerly direction toward the city of Wilming-

ton. Gen. Du Pont has agreed to pay for the com-
pletion of this road to Wilmington, a distance of 80
miles, making the total of the Du Pont Road
approximately 100 miles. |

State-aid roads.—Those which are built from joint
State and county funds under the direction of the
State highway commissioners of New Castle County,
and the county road engineers of Kent and Sussex
counties. About 180 miles were constructed up to
January 1, 1917. Contracts are let by the levy
courts and the roads when completed are maintained
at the expense of the counties.

County roads.—All roads except those above re-
ferred to are classed as county roads and are under
the jurisdiction of the levy courts. All State-aid
roads after completion are maintained by the
counties as county roads.

REVENUES.

State.—The State treasurer is authorized to issue
State bonds with which to construct a system of
permanent State highways. Two sources of funds
are provided with which to pay interest and prin-
cipal of these bonds, and for the support of the State
highway department as well as for the maintenance
of State highways, namely, the gross receipts from
automobile registration fees and the gross receipts
from the State income tax less $250,000 per an-
num, which goes to public schools. After deducting
enough each year to pay interest on the bonds out-
standing and 23 per cent of the total of outstanding
bonds for sinking funds, the balance is used for the
support of the State highway department and for
the maintenance of the State highways. The funds
are appropriated at the discretion of the State
highway department on the budget system. Addi-
tional bonds may be issued whenever the funds
available will justify. The amount of bonds that
may be issued will depend, of course, on the amounts
received from the sources above referred to and
upon amounts which will be necessary to support
the highway department and maintain State high-

ways. No State bonds have as yet been issued.
During 1917 the gross receipts from the auto-

mobile registration fees amounted to $140,000, but
the general assembly provided that $50,000 of this
should be reserved, leaving $90,000 for the purpose
outlined. In 1918 and thereafter the gross receipts
from this fund are to be placed to the credit of the
State highway fund to be used as indicated.

The general assembly in 1917 appropriated
$10,000 for State aid to each of the three counties
for the years 1918 and 1919; also $1,000 per annum
toward the salary of the State highway commissioner
from New Castle County, making a total of $31,000
per annum for the two-year period.

EEE

i .

aie

3
Local.—Special taxes to meet State aid and regular
taxes for maintenance are levied by the levy courts
of the respective counties. These local funds amount
to approximately $250,000 per annum.

BONDS.

State.—Bonds shall bear not to exceed 44 per cent
interest and must be paid within 40 years, but the
bonds must be issued subject to call after one year
from the date of issue, and if called, the State buys
them at 103. <A sinking fund is established by the
State treasurer with which to retire the bonds
amounting to 24 per cent per annum of the total
sonds outstanding.

Local.—Most of the funds with which roads have
been permanently improved in the various counties
have been derived from county bond issues. On
January 1, 1915, Kent County had $30,000 of road
bonds outstanding and New Castle County, $1,250,-
000. Sussex County had not issued any bonds.
The general assembly in 1917 authorized additional
issues as follows: One hundred thousand dollars in
Kent County, $600,000 in New Castle County, and
$1,000,000 in Sussex. In New Castle and Sussex
the bonds may bear not to exceed 44 per cent
interest, while in Kent 5 per cent may be paid. All
of the county bonds are to be deferred serial type,
the first payment falling due 10 years from the date
of issue, and the last payment, 39, 43, and 49 years
in Kent, New Castle, and Sussex, respectively. All
of the bonds, however, may be issued subject to eall
after five years, xt which time they may be redeemed
at 5 per cent.

FLORIDA.

Development.—State participation in road work
in Florida has been of such small amount as to be
relatively unimportant, as the State road depart-
ment was not created until 1916 and then acted only
in an advisory capacity over such road matters as
were brought to its attention. However, in assent-
ing to the provisions of the Federal aid road act in
1917, the legislature provided a limited amount of
funds to be expended by or under the supervision
of the State road department in the construction
and maintenance of a system of State roads and as
aid to counties in the construction of certain desig-
nated roads, and extended and broadened the
powers and duties of the department.

Road improvement in Florida has, heretofore,
been left to the various counties, and while about
20 per cent of the road mileage of the State has been
hard surfaced, the various counties have not followed
uniform standards of construction or cooperated
with each other to secure a well connected State-
wide road system.

]

Under the new powers delegated to the State
road department the State will be represented in the
construction and maintenance of certain roads and
will have limited general supervision or powers
over a large amount of local construction and repair.

In 1916, the State road department expended
$10,484 in educational and advisory work, while
about $4,000,000 was expended by the counties for
road construction and maintenance. In 1917 the
total expenditures for road and bridge purposes were
$6,384,797.

The total amount of mileage included in the State
road system has not been made available for
publication.

ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the highway forces of the
State and the relation existing between them is
shown on page 32.

State.—The State road department consists of
five nonsalaried members appointed by the governor
for terms of four years, one member being resident
in each of the four Congressional districts of the
State, and one member from the State at large. A
chairman and secretary are elected annually from
the membership of the department. The State
road commissioner, who is required to be a com-
petent and efficient engineer well versed in the
building of good roads, is selected and employed
by the department. Such other and
office force as may be required by the amount of
work in hand are provided by the department. In
addition to the duties shown on the chart, in the
appendix, the State road department is required or
empowered to designate a system of State roads
and a system of State-aid roads. The department
may, when requested by local officials, take charge
of construction and maintenance of local roads or
bridges.

The department also is directed to inspect the
books, records, methods of construction and repair
of roads and bridges of the various county boards
of commissioners, and to point out improper prac-
tices or procedure, and to bring the matter to the
attention of the governor of the State upon. neglect
or refusal of the board to remedy the conditions or
practices criticised by the State road department.

assistants

4
The governor has ‘the power to remove county

officials for malfeasance or misfeasance and_ to
appoint their successors. The department is re-
quired to compile and to furnish road officials and
other interested citizens of the State, data relative
to road mileage, methods and materials of construc-
tion and repair, and to publish road maps when
practicable.

County.—Each county is governed by a board
of five commissioners elected from the five districts
of the county. This board has full control over all

roads of the county except the mileage included in
the State or State-aid system. The board may
appoint a county road superintendent to take
active charge of the road and bridge work of the
county, or the commissioners may assume charge
of the work in their respective districts and appoint
overseers to take local charge of the work.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The roads of Florida, comprising about 18,000
miles, are for the purpose of fixing responsibility
for construction, control and maintenance, divided

Male convicts from the State Penitentiary may
be utilized for road construction and maintenance
purposes as follows: Not to exceed 300 may be
placed at the disposal of the State road department.
All expenses incurred on account of convicts so de-
tailed are paid by the State road department out of
funds provided for road construction and mainte-
nance purposes. Such additional convicts as may
be available may, when requested, be leased to the
county boards of commissioners. Such convicts
are at all times subject to supervision by, and the
rules and regulations of, the board of commissioners

rc
STATE AND STATE AID ROADS

STATE ROAD DEPARTMENT

STATE ROAD COMMISSIONER

FLORID

CONVICT LABOR

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF
STATE INSTITUTIONS
AND STATE COMMISSIONER OF
AGRICULTURE

CHIEF CLERK BRIDGE ENGINEER

DRAF TSMEN }

ASSISTANT ENGINEERS

STATE AND STATE AID ROADS
RESIDENT ENGINEERS

CLERKS

COOPERATIVE

LOCAL ROADS

INSPECTORS

FOREMEN- CONTRACTORS

CONVICTS

into three groups: namely, State roads, State-aid
roads and county roads.

State roads are designated, constructed, and
maintained by the State road department. State
funds for their construction and maintenance are
provided by the legislature or by a State-wide tax,
Federal funds allotted to the State are expended on
State or State-aid roads.

State-aid roads are selected by the State road
department in cooperation with the county board
of commissioners. The cost of plans and estimates
is paid jointly by the State and county. The cost
of construction is borne equally by the State and
counties but Federal funds may be substituted tor
State funds. The State road department furnishes
the engineer, and the county pays the field and
travel expenses. Construction is under control of
the State road department, and may be executed
by force account, convict labor, or by contract.

DISTRICT ROADS
DISTRICT COMMISSIONERS

ENGINEER

FOREMEN-CONTRACTORS j

BOARD OF COUNTY COMMISSIONERS

COUNTY ROAD SUP’T OR ROAD COMMISSIONERS

OVERSEERS

FOREMEN- CONTRACTORS |.

STATUTE AND HIRED LABOR

of the State institutions, and the State commis-
sioner of agriculture. When the convicts are leased
to counties, the county pays either $1.00 or $10.00
per month per man, the rate being dependent upon
the physical conditions of the convict.

When State or State-aid work is to be left to
contract, due publicity by the State road depart-
ment is required. The contract is let by the State
road department to the lowest responsible bidder
conditioned on his filing an acceptable bond.

Payment of State funds may not be made except
on a voucher signed by the secretary and approved
by the chairman of the State road department, the
voucher being drawn against the Comptroller of the
State, who issues his warrant to the State treasurer.

State-aid roads are maintained under the super-
vision of the State road department. One-half of
the cost of maintenance on these roads is paid by
the county.

County roads, comprising all other roads of
the State, are opened, constructed, and maintained
by the county boards with county funds. However,
the State road department is required on the re-
quest of the county officials to detail competent
assistants to advise with local officials or to take
charge of construction of county roads or bridges.

REVENUES.

State.—A state-wide tax not exceeding one-half
mill on each dollar of valuation of the taxable
property of the State is levied each year. The
proceeds of this tax estimated at $150,000 for the
fiscal year 1918 are at the disposal of the State road
department for construction and maintenance of
State and State-aid roads. The legislature provided
appropriations of $56,000, $112,000, and $168,000,
available for the years beginning July 1, 1916, 1917,
and 1918. These sums are not in addition to the
proceeds of the tax levy fund, as these amounts are
deducted therefrom and the balance remaining, if
any, may be used by the State road department.
Fifteen per cent of the net revenues, estimated at
$40,000 for the calendar year 1918, from the licens-
ing of motor vehicles and chauffeurs is set aside for
the maintenance of the State road department.

County.—Eighty-five per cent of the net revenues
from licensing of motor vehicles and chauffeurs is

set aside as a State maintenance fund for the
maintenance of State and State-aid roads and

bridges, and is apportioned among the counties in
proportion to the total State tax paid by each
county into the State treasury. When this fund
is not required for State or State-aid road mainte-
nance purposes, it may be expended for new con-
struction. of roads of those classes.

The county boards may levy a special tax at a
rate of not less than 3 or more than 8 mills on each
dollar of taxable property for road and bridge pur-
poses, provided that 50 per cent of the amount
collected within the corporate limits of towns and
cities be delivered to the municipal authorities for
street improvements. Special districts of the county
may be formed and may levy additional taxes for
road improvement.

A labor tax of not to exceed five days’ labor is
required of each person residing more than 30 days
in the county and who does not pay any real or
personal tax. This tax may be commuted in whole
or in part by the payment of $1 for each day of
labor required.

BONDS.

Sinking-fund bonds may be issued by counties or
special districts when authorized by a majority of
the voters resident therein. The amount of the
issue, the term, and the rate of interest are specified
in the proposal submitted to the voters.

On January 1, 1915, there was outstanding a total
bonded indebtedness of $5,959,199.22 incurred by
counties for road and bridge construction.

These bonds bore interest at 5 and 6 per cent and
ranged from 20 to 30 year terms.

IDAHO.

Development.—State interest in road and
bridge improvement in Idaho has been manifested
intermittently since 1905. During the period 1905 to
1913 the legislature provided additional funds for va-
rious local projects in communities unable to bear the
financial burden imposed by the construction of im-
provements tending to be of more than local benefit.

With the organization of the State highway
department in 1913 and the provision of funds for
the support thereof, State participation in road and
bridge improvement became a fixed State policy,
and is now being extended to a system of State
highways which comprises: about 9 per cent of the
total road mileage of the State and which has been
selected with the approval of and is administered
by the State highway commission.

Idaho, in common with other thinly settled States,
is handicapped by a lack of funds necessary to con-
struct roads and bridges essential to the encourage-
ment of immigration and the development of the
mining and timber resources of the State. How-
ever, State funds in combination with local funds
are being expended for substantial bridges and cul-
verts and the grading of rights of way selected to
insure proper alignment and easy gradients. While
the need of surfaced roads is recognized, the policy
of the State highway department has been to defer
that stage of construction until more funds are
available, as the graded earth roads with but few
exceptions serve the present needs of the public,
and surfacing may be added at a later date when
a larger amount of funds becomes available.

At the close of 1916, 800 miles or 3.3 per cent of
the total State mileage had been improved. Of
this mileage 413 miles have been built under State
supervision.

Road and bridge expenditures during 1916
amounted to $100,057 of State funds and $348,061
of local funds expended by or under the supervi-
sion of the State highway department.

The total expenditure by all road forces of the
State for the same period reached $1,948,118. The
State thus exercised supervision over 23 per cent
of the total expenditures. In 1917 the total was
$2 092,723.

ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the road forces of the State
and the relation existing between them is shown
in the chart on the next page.

State.—The State highway commission is com-
posed of the secretary of the state and two members
appointed by the governor for terms of three years.
The State highway engineer is selected by the com-
mission and serves as the executive official of the
State highway department. He selects with the
approval of the commission such office and field
assistants as may be required to carry out the duties
imposed on him, by law and the orders of the com-
mission. Field operations are carried out under
the control and direction of six division engineers

CONVICT LABOR

STATE BOARD OF =
PRISON COMMRS

ACCOUNTANT |

CONSTRUCTION- MAINTENANCE

DIVISION ENGINEERS 6

LOCATING ENGINEERS

RESIDENT ENGINEERS

FOREMEN - CONTRACTORS

ee COOPERATES ON STATE WORK
pe oe cy Sn, tae EOL RNA Died AeA Sap SSS

nature, the members of the board being elected for
terms of four years and the organization may con-
tinue until dissolved by action of the residents of
the district. The county board or district board
may cooperate with the State highway commission
in the construction of State highways located within
the limits of the county or district, and may con-
struct under their exclusive authority roads of
local importance. The county or district may —
employ an engineer to supervise work not under
the supervisory control of the State highway de-

IDAHO

LOCAL ROADS

|
|
LOCAL ROADS

GOOD ROADS COMMRS

LOCAL ROADS

DIST. HIGHWAY BOARD
|

COUNTY SURVEYOR
COUNTY ENGINEER

ROAD OVERSEERS ROAD SUPERVISORS

FOREMEN - CONTRACTORS

FOREMEN - CONTRACTORS :
FOREMEN-CONTRACTORS |

CONVICT LABOR

who report to and represent the State highway
engineer. The State highway department has
full control over construction, financed wholly or
in part with Federal or State funds, and is respon-
sible for the proper maintenance of such work when
completed. |
County.—Road affairs in the county are ad-
ministered by a board of county commissioners,
elective officials, who levy and expend the pro-
ceeds of the ordinary taxes prescribed by general
State law for the construction and repair of county
roads and_ bridges. | Whenever improvements
financed by special taxes or the proceeds of local
bond issues are contemplated, a special highway
district or a good roads district may be formed
within the limits of the county and an administra-
tive board consisting of three elective members is
chosen to take charge of the work. In the case
of the good-roads district, the board is dissolved
upon completion of the project. The highway
district is an organization of a more permanent

HIRED LABOR

HIRED LABOR } HIRED LABOR }

HIRED LABOR

partment. Road overseers are appointed by county
boards to supervise statutory or paid labor used for
minor repairs or ordinary maintenance.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The 24,386 miles of public road in Idaho are, for
the purpose of fixing responsibility for control,
construction, and maintenance, divided into two
groups, namely, State highways and county roads.

State highways.—These comprise about 2,200 —
miles of road selected by the State highway com- :
mission for improvement under their direction with
funds provided by the State and local governments.
The State highway department executes all surveys,
prepares plans and estimates, and supervises the
construction for all roads of this group. The cost
of the work, exclusive of the cost of right of way, is
borne as follows: In all counties or districts having
an assessed valuation of $1,000,000 or more, the —
State pays one-third of the cost and the county or —
district pays the remainder. In districts of less than _

—~

$1,000,000 valuation the cost is shared equally by
the State and county or district. When completed
the road is maintained by the State or the commission
may arrange with the county or district to execute
maintenance.

Initiative for improvement of roads of this group
is taken by the county or district board which
makes application to the State highway commission
for State assistance. If deemed feasible and funds
therefor are available, the necessary preliminary
work is executed by the State highway department.
The plans and specifications are approved by the
State highway engineer and the local boards con-
cerned, and when the estimated cost exceeds $2,000,
the work is let by contract or with the consent of the
board of prison commissioners and warden of the
penitentiary, State convicts may be employed by
the State highway commission to execute the work.
If done by contract, contracts are let by the State
highway commission and a resident engineer is
detailed to take charge of the work during its prog-
ress. He prepares monthly estimates covering 85
per cent of the completed work and these estimates
when approved by the local boards, the State high-
way engineer, and the State board of examiners, are
paid by the State treasurer. Final payment is made
in a similar manner.

County roads.—All other public roads of the
State are classed as county roads and are located,
controlled, constructed, and maintained by county
or district boards with local funds. The State high-
way department exercises no authority over roads
of this group, but may advise local officials relative
thereto at their request. County prisoners may be
required by order of the county board to labor on
public highways.
REVENUES.

State.—The State highway fund is composed of
the remainder of the proceeds of the State bond
issue of $1,000,000, or about $500,000, 224 per cent
of the revenues accruing from the registration of
motor vehicles and 224 per cent of all fines and
penalties accruing from violation of the motor
vehicle act. This fund is available for the support
of the State highway department and for the con-
struction and maintenance of State highways. It
is estimated that State’s portion of the motor vehicle
fund will amount to about $98,000 for the calendar
year 1918. Two and one-half per cent of the revenues
from motor-vehicle registration and a State highway
tax of one-tenth of 1 mill upon the assessed value
of property within the State are placed on redemption
funds for the payment of the principal and interest
of State highway bonds.

County.—County road and bridge funds are
obtained from the imposition of a cash poll tax
levied at a rate not exceeding $4 per year on each

cent for a term not exceeding 20 years.

able-bodied adult male person between the ages of
21 and 50 years. Seventy-five per cent of the
amount collected within the borders of incorporated
cities, towns, and villages is returned to the road
fund of the corporation. Seventy-five per cent of
the auto revenues originating in each county are
returned to the counties and districts for road
improvement purposes. It is estimated that about
$300,000 will be distributed by State authorities for
the calendar year 1918. Property taxes at a rate
not exceeding $1 on each $100 of assessed valuation
may be levied by counties or district boards. The
county board is entitled to receive 25 per cent of
the funds raised by ordinary taxation in a highway
district.
BONDS.

Bonds of the sinking-fund type may be issued by
the State at a rate of interest not exceeding 44 per
Similar
bonds may be issued by a good-roads district at a
rate not exceeding 6 per cent for a term not exceeding
20 years. Highway. districts may issue bonds of
similar type at the same rate of interest for a term
not exceeding 10 years.

INDIANA.

DEVELOPMENT.

State supervision over and participation in road
improvement in Indiana has recently become a fixed
State policy as the legislature in 1917 provided for
the establishment of a State highway commission, for
the designation of a State-wide system of main
market roads to be improved at State and county
expense, and for the extension of the supervisory and
advisory powers of the commission to other roads of
the State on request of the local officials in charge
thereof.

The system of main market roads is at present
limited to a mileage of 2,000, but after January 1,
1920, may be increased by the State highway com-
mission with the approval of the governor of the
State.

Prior to the passage of the legislation above re-
ferred to, road construction and maintenance in
Indiana was vested in 1,017 township and 92 county
boards. Under this form of organization about
31,000 miles or 42.5 per cent of the total road mileage
of the State, had been surfaced, gravel and water-
bound macadam being the most popular types of con-
struction. However, as financing of road improve-
ments by means of bond issues has been the almost
universal practice and as the types of road con-
structed are ill suited to present-day traffic needs, it

1 The constitution of the State highway law is now being tested in the
supreme court of the State.

became necessary, in order to provide for economical
reconstruction and maintenance of roads in actual
use, to place trained technical men in supervisory and
advisory charge of this work rather than to depend,
as had been done in the past, on local officials elected
by popular vote.

Local control of road work reached a higher state
of development in Indiana than in most States and
produced a system of surfaced roads which, under
traffic conditions prevalent 20 years ago, would have
been. eminently satisfactory to the public. How-
ever, new traffic conditions have required different
administrative measures and in the future action of
town supervisors will be confined to roads of lesser
traffic, leaving the more important roads under the
charge of county and State officials.

The extent to which bonds have been issued for
road and bridge improvements is evidenced by the
statement that on January 1, 1915, $5,137,671.12 of
county bonds and $36,957,686.22 of township bonds
were outstanding.

The expenditures by all local forces of the State
in 1917 for road and bridge purposes reached a
total of $14,014,000.

ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the highway forces of the
State and the relation existing between them is shown
by chart on page 37.

State.—The State highway commission, a bipar-
tisan body composed of four members appointed by
the governor for terms of four years each, one mem-
ber being chosen from each of the four districts into
which the State has been divided by legislative
enactment, is the administrative body in charge of
the road work of the State. The State highway
engineer, required to be a competent and skilled civil
engineer, is selected by the commission and serves
at their pleasure. He is the secretary of the com-
mission and serves as their executive officer in the
enforcement of State and bridge laws and the rules
and regulations of the commission. Such technical
and clerical force as may be required is employed by
him with the approval of the State highway com-
mission.

The State highway commission is required to
select a system of main market roads, to cause to be
prepared plans, specifications, estimates of cost of
proposed improvements, and to enter into contracts
for and to furnish competent supervision during the
progress of the improvements. The State highway
engineer, on request of 50 or more interested prop-
erty owners, is required to inspect plans, specifica-
tions, estimates of cost, ete., of any road costing
$2,000 or more per mile or of any bridge costing $500
or more, and the work may not proceed without his
approval. The State highway department in gen-

eral is vested with broad powers over the construc-_

tion and maintenance of the main market road
system.

D ‘

County.—Road administration in the county is_

vested in a board of three commissioners, one being
elected each year. The county auditor and county
treasurer are respectively clerk and fiscal agent of
the board.
highway commission in the improvement of the
main market roads of the county and appoints for a
term of two years a county highway superintendent
who has charge of the maintenance of the improved
county roads. He may appoint an assistant super-
intendent for each 25 miles of road under his care.
The county surveyor is ex officio engineer of the
county or in case of his inability to execute and to
supervise engineering work the board may appoint
an engineer.

Township.—The township trustee, elected for a
term of four years, has general charge of the road
affairs of the township. He is assisted by super-
visors elected for a term of two years by the voters
of each district into which each township is divided.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The 73,347 miles of public road in Indiana are for
the purpose of fixing responsibility for construction,

The board cooperates with the State —

maintenance, and control divided into three groups, —

namely, main market highways, or State roads,
county roads, and township roads. Of this system
of main market highways, limited to a mileage of
2,000 until January 1, 1920, 800 miles connecting
the principal centers of population of the State, has
been designated by the State highway commission,
and will be constructed under supervision of the com-
mission with Federal, State, and county funds.
Initiative for construction or reconstruction of
roads of this group is taken by the county board
which makes application to the commission for
State aid, defines in a general way the extent of the
project and agrees to provide sufficient funds to pay
the county’s share of the total cost. On approval
of the project by the commission, the State highway
engineer causes to be prepared surveys, plans, speci-
fications, and estimates of cost for at least two types
or kinds of construction. Bids on both types are
requested by the county board through notices
published in two newspapers of different political
faith in the county. The county board after con-
sideration of the bids selects one of the two types
and with the approval of the State highway engineer
lets the contract. In case of disagreement between
the State highway engineer and the county board
over the contract, the power to render a final deci-
sion, after five days, lies with the State highway
commission. Bridges costing more than $500 are
let under separate contract. Road improvements

aria a tree D

CONVICT LABOR MAIN MARKET OR STATE ROADS
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
REFORMATORY

AND PRISONS

TESTS
STATEUNIVERSITY | __
LABORATORY

SURVEYORS
ORAFTSMEN

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

RESIDENT ENGINEERS

FOREMEN—CONTRACTORS

CONVICT LABOR HIRED LABOR

costing less than $1,000 may, at the discretion of
the State highway engineer, be executed by force
account labor. The work during progress is under
the supervision of the State highway engineer or his
representative. Partial payment may be made by
the State treasurer when approved by the State
auditor at monthly intervals when based on esti-
mates approved by the State highway engineer.
Final payment is made in a similar manner on com-
pletion and acceptance of the work by the State
highway engineer. The amount of cost to be borne
by the county, 50 per cent or more, is certified by
the State highway engineer to the county board for
payment. All payments accruing from this source
are deposited with and become a part of the State
highway fund. Roads of this group are maintained
by the State highway department at State expense.
State convicts, with the approval by the governor
of arrangements between the authorities having
charge thereof and the State highway commission, may
beutilized in the preparation of road-building material.
County roads.—Thé county roads comprise those
which have been improved at township expense and
are maintained by and at the expense of the county.
Township roads.—These may be improved and
surfaced on petition to a county board of 50 free-
holders resident of the township or townships
affected. In special cases involving the construc-
tion of 3 miles or less of road which has termini
specified by law, the county board may order the
work done without submitting the proposal to the
voters. of the territory affected. Otherwise an

(37

PEOPLE
LEGISLATURE
GOVERNOR

STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSION

STATE HIGHWAY ENGINEER

CLERICAL FORCE
STENOGRAPHERS

INDIANA

COUNTY AND

TOWNSHIP ROADS

COUNTY ENGINEER

CO. SUP’T OF HIGHWAYS

TOWNSHIP ROADS

TOWNSHIP
TRUSTEES

BONO
ISSUES

TOWNSHIP SUPERVISORS
FOREMEN—CONTRACTORS
CONVICT LABOR HIRED LABOR STATUTE LABOR HIRED LABOR

election is held to secure an expression of public
sentiment and to authorize the issue of the neces-
sary township bonds. The work during progress is
under supervision of the county boards and such
engineering force as they may select. However, on
petition of 50 or more interested freeholders, the
State highway engineer is required to inspect the
plans and specifications and may require changes
therein, or, if requested, he may detail at township
expense a competent subordinate to take charge of
the work. Surfaced roads of this group are trans-
ferred to group 2 for control and maintenance.
The remaining roads of. this group are maintained
by township forces at township expense. ‘The work
done under this head consists principally of minor
repairs in grading and such general maintenance as
is usually done by district or township officials.

REVENUES.

The State highway fund is composed of (a) pro-
ceeds of the inheritance tax paid after April 1, 1917,
(b) receipts from public-service corporations on
account of the elimination of grade crossings, (c¢)
reimbursement by counties as their share of con-
struction, (d) appropriation by the State legislature,
(e) all unexpended balances remaining in the fund
at the close of a fiscal year. For 1918 approxi-
mately $1,050,000 will be available, of which
$600,000 will be derived from appropriation and
$450,000 from the inheritance tax.

From this fund are deducted sums necessary to
support and maintain the State highway depart-

ment and provide for the maintenance of the system
of main market roads, and the remainder is appor-
tioned among the counties of the State in the pro-
portion that their main market road mileage bears
to the total road mileage of the system.

County.—The motor-vehicle fund is apportioned
by the secretary of state among the counties as
follows: One-third equally among the counties, one-
third in proportion to the miles of free gravel or
macadam road in the county, and one-third in the
ratio of each county’s contribution to the motor-
vehicle fund. Counties may levy a tax at a rate
of not to exceed 1 cent on $100 valuation for main-
tenance of free improved roads.

Township.—A tax at a rate not exceeding 30 cents
on each $100 of valuation may be levied for road
and bridge purposes. Up to 20 cents of this tax
may be worked out on the township roads, providing
that an additional tax paid in cash of 10 cents on
each $100 valuation be levied for road and bridge
purposes.

Bonds.—Serial bonds in an amount not exceeding
4 per cent of the assessed valuation of the county
or township may be issued for road and bridge pur-
poses. Such bonds bear a rate of interest not to
exceed 44 per cent and are generally limited to a
term of 20 years.

IOWA.

Development.—State interest in and _ super-
vision over road and bridge improvement in Lowa
has developed from the organization in 1904 of
several members of the faculty of the Iowa State
College at Ames as a State highway commission with
advisory and research powers to a State highway
department provided with limited state-wide powers
over all road and bridge work in the State, and with
full powers over a fund to assist the various counties
in constructing permanent improvements on a
specified system of roads. —

The work instituted in 1904 by the State College
was amplified in 1913 by the creation of an independ-
ent highway commission of three members, one
of whom was the dean of engineering at the State
college with increased advisory duties and a more
liberal appropriation for its support.

As the State did not provide funds for road and
bridge construction until 1917, practically all im-
provements have been financed and executed by the
counties of the State, generally in accordance with
plans approved by the State highway commission.

The legislation of 1917 provided for the selection
of rural post roads with a total mileage of not less
than 2,000 nor more than 6,000, to include a part
of the road mileage of each county as a road system
to be improved under State supervision at State and
county expense.

Statistics available at the close of 1916 show that
about 1,000 miles, or approximately 1 per cent of
the total road mileage of the State, had been surfaced.

Expenditures for road and bridge purposes during
the year 1916 were as follows: By the State highway
commission for its support and operation, $90,821,
and $14,337,056 by the local officials under the more
or less general supervision of the State highway
commission.

A large percentage of the above sum was ex-
pended for the construction of bridges and culverts
of permanent type and the greater portion of the

‘remainder of the sum was spent on drainage, grading,

and dragging of earth roads, leaving a comparatively
small sum expended for permanent surfacing.
Thus the present road system of Lowa consists almost
entirely of earth roads.

Towa has a large road mileage and is not willing at
present to bear the financial burden required to
provide surfacing for the present road system.
However, the necessary preliminary work for a
system of good roads is being executed and sur-

facing may be added when permitted by financial —

conditions.
ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the highway forces, State and
local, and the relation existing between them is
shown on page 39.

State.—The administrative head of the road
and bridge forces of the State is a State highway
commission composed of the dean of engineering of
the lowa State College and two members of different
political faith appointed by the governor for terms
of four years each. .

The commission is empowered to select the roads _

upon which Federal or State funds are expended, to
supervise such expenditures, and to exercise general
supervision over all road and bridge work throughout
the State. All county and township road officials
are subject to supervision and inspection by the
State highway commission and may at the initiative
of the commission be removed from office for negli-

gence of duty or improper or unlawful conduct of

their office.

The commission, in cooperation with the Lowa
Railroad Commission, has the power to make
agreements with railroad companies for the elimina-
tion of dangerous grade crossings and may defray,
on behalf of the State, a portion of the cost of such
work.

The commission has the power to employ and fix
the compensation of such employees as may be
necessary to carry out the duties imposed upon
them by law. The chief engineer appointed by the
commission serves as their executive official in
charge of the force employed by the commission,
and is represented in various sections of the State by
five division engineers.

om Bo np es hae i ER tw lp I a

AAS oo ™

reich ORE a MRR ERS ees

ea geen me

_ road and bridge work.

County.—The board of supervisors, consisting
generally of three members elected for terms of
three years, comprises the body in charge of county
The number of supervisors
may be increased to five or seven by a majority
vote of the county. The county auditor and the
county treasurer are respectively clerk and fiscal
agent of the board. The county engineer is selected
by the board for a term of office not to exceed one
year. He serves under the direction of the board
but the State highway commission exercises exten-
sive jurisdiction over the technical part of his duties.

PEOPLE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Roads of this group are constructed by the county
under the direction of the State highway commis-
sion, the cost being borne by the State and Federal
Governments from a fund known as Federal-county
cooperation road fund. The county contributes
whatever additional amount it is possible to divert
to such work from regular road levies. All rights
of way are secured and all bridges and culverts
are constructed at the expense of the county.
Initiative in construction is taken by the county
board, which requests an allotment of funds for a
specified project and contracts with the State

IOWA

LOCAL ROADS & BRIDGES

GOVERNOR

CONVICT LABOR

FEDERAL-STATE-—COUNTY—TOWNSHIP ROADS, BRIOGES, & CULVERTS

----| STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSION

DESIGN AND SUPERVISION
ON PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS

CHIEF ENGINEER

DRAINAGE ENGR EXPERIMENTAL ENGR

ROAD ENGINEER
ASST ENGR

INSTITUTIONS
DRAFTSMEN

ASSISTANTS STENOGRAPHER

ASS’T ENGINEERS — INSPECTORS

DISTRICT ENGINEERS 6G

SUPERVISORY ON ALL
PERMANENT WORK

Township.—Road affairs are administered: by

ST ENOGRAPHER

AUDITOR CONSULTING ENGR

FILE CLERK

ST ENOGRAPHER

BRIDGE ENGINEER

ASS’T BRIDGE ENG’R

ASS’T ENG’R
R.R. CROSSINGS

INSPECTORS [ DESIGNERS 2 |

TOWNSHIP .ROADS
TOWNSHIP
TRUSTEES

SUPERINTENDENTS

ORAFTS MEN

FEDERAL & COUNTY ROADS & BRIDGES
BOARDS OF SUPERVISORS pe aay

COUNTY ENGINEER } Soe wank

highway commission to provide proper main-
tenance therefor when the road is constructed.

a board of directing trustees. The township clerk
is clerk of this board. The board appoints at least
one and not more than four township road superin-
tendents to have charge of the road: construction
and repair, and to execute or supervise the dragging
of township roads required by law.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The 104,074 miles of public road in Iowa are
divided for the purpose of fixing responsibility for
control into three groups, namely, systems of inter-
county roads, county highways, and township roads.

Intercounty roads are selected by the State
highway commission from roads recommended by
the county board of supervisors of each county.
They are required to be important routes of travel
and are selected to form as nearly as practicable a
State-wide system. The present mileage of this
system is restricted by statute to 6,000.

Surveys are made by the county engineer or a
representative of the chief engineer of the com-
mission. Final plans and specifications are approved
by the county board, the State highway commission,
and the United States Secretary of Agriculture.
Bids are requested by the county board; and con-
tracts are let by the board with the approval of
the State highway commission. The successful
bidder files a bond acceptable to the county board
and to the State highway commission. The work
during progress is generally under the charge of
the county engineer or, if it is deemed advisable,
an engineer is detailed by the chief engineer of the
commission to assist or take full charge of the work.

Monthly payments based on estimates prepared
by the engineer in charge and certified to by the
contractor are made with the approval of the
county board and the State highway commission.

Payment is completed by the presentation of a
voucher by the State Highway Commission to the
State auditor who issues a warrant on the State
treasurer.

Maintenance of the completed roads is executed
by and at the expense of the county in accordance
with the orders and subject to the inspection of the
State Highway Commission.

County roads.—Each county board of the
State has been required to designate and to indicate
on the map not less than 10 per cent nor more than
15 per cent of the total road mileage of the county.
This group of roads when approved by the State
highway commission is known as the county road
system and is constructed and maintained by county
officials with county funds in accordance with plans
and specifications approved by the State highway
commission. The county system as evidenced by the
map approved by the State highway commission and
and filed with the county auditor may be modified
or extended by the county board with the approval
of the State highway commission. Improvement of
these roads may be done by contract, by force ac-
count, or with convict labor from the State peni-
tentiaries, under supervision of the State highway
commission. All bridges and culverts constructed
on roads of this group must be erected in accordance
with plans furnished by the State highway commis-
sion, and all contracts involving the expenditure of
$2,000 or more must be approved by the State high-

way commission. By the terms of a law effective
July 4, 1917, the patrol system of maintenance be-

came obligatory on the county systems of highways.
Patrolmen are required to give their entire time for
the period specified by the county board of super-
visors.

The total mileage of county roads is restricted at
present by statute to 15,667 miles.

Township roads.—All other
the State not included in the county system com-
prise the township roads administered by township
officials. All work other than minor or emergency
repairs and routine dragging done on these roads is
executed under supervision of the township officials
in accordance with plans and specifications prepared
by the county engineer.

REVENUES.

State.—The State treasurer is authorized to
withdraw each year from the fund accruing from
the registration and licensing of motor wehiclent (1)
5 per cent of the gross receipts for the support. of
the State highway commission, (2) 5 per cent for
the office of the secretary of State to defray the cost
of collection, (3) an amount equal to the amount of
Federal aid allotted that year to the State by the

40)

public roads. of

United States Secretary of Agriculture.

This fund
combined with the Federal aid forms the Federal-
county cooperation fund which is allotted to the
several counties of the State in the ratio that their
area bears to the total area of the State. (4) A far-
ther deduction from the motor-vehicle fund by an
amount specified by the highway commission is
made by the treasurer and credited to a fund des-
ignated the ‘Federal aid engineering fund,” out of
which the engineering expense incurred by the
State highway commission in improving the inter-
county road system is defrayed. The amounts avail-
able for the year July 1, 1917, to June 30, 1918, are
estimated to be as follows:
FS CL 2 en a oe, ts Se ee $105, 000. 00

Hudgens ie eceice sree omen 105, 000. 00
Rund-32¥ sans «arate eAneisieae oe ete 438, 526, 80
Rundanise. wire ae 30, 000. 00

County.—The remainder of the motor-vehicle
fund is apportioned by the State treasurer among
the several counties of the State in the ratio that
the number of civil townships in each county bears
to the total number of townships in the State. Not
to exceed 10 per cent of the amount apportioned to
each county 1s apportioned by the county treasurer
among the incorporated cities and towns in the ratio
that their street mileage bears to the total road
mileage of the county. This fund may be expended
by cities or towns in improving streets, connecting
with county or township roads, or the fund may be
transferred to the county cash road fund for ex-
penditure by the board of supervisors.

The county cash road fund is composed (1) of the
proceeds of not to exceed 1 mill tax levied on all
taxable property in the county. One-half of the
amount raised in cities or towns is returned to the
city or town for use on its main streets or roads;
(2) a 2-mill tax levied on all taxable property out-
side incorporated cities and towns, and (3) a mill
tax levied in cities and towns except cities of the
third class and cities having a special charter.

The county road and bridge fund is composed of a
tax levied at a rate which may not exceed 5 mills
on all taxable property in the county outside cities
of the first class.

Township.—The township road fund is com-
posed of the proceeds of a tax levied at a rate not
exceeding 4 mills on all taxable property in the
township. ‘The township drag fund is raised by a tax
of 1 mill. The township drainage fund is raised by
a tax of not more than 5 mills. This fund is raised
for the payment of benefits assessed against the
township on account of the improvement of high-
ways by the formation of drainage districts.

A special tax at a rate of 1 mill may be levied for
road purposes on petition of a majority of the voters
of the township. ,

All able-bodied males, not legally exempt, resident
in the township, between the ages of 21 and 45, are
required to labor two days each year on the town-
ship roads or to forfeit $3 for each day’s delinquency.

BONDS.

Bonds may be issued by the county boards of
supervisors to refund outstanding warrants for which
no funds are available. The amount of bonds issued,
the term, and rate of interest is left to the discre-
tion of the various county boards. Such indebted-
ness is limited by State law to 5 per cent of the total
assessed valuation of the county. County bonds in
the amount of $1,960,780 were outstanding on Jan-
uary 1, 1915.

KANSAS.

Development.—The State government of Kan-
sas is prohibited by a clause of the State constitution
from assisting in any work of internal improvement.
However, this restriction has been construed by the
State courts to refer to the grant of money aid for
the work of internal improvement and does not
‘prohibit the delegation of authority to county
officials to carry out such improvement nor prohibit
State officials from giving advice relative to or
preparing plans and specifications for such work
and actually supervising the construction and
maintenance thereof. .

Supervision of road and bridge matters prior to
1917 was vested in the officials of 105 counties and
1,492 townships. The results obtained under this
form of administration were a prominent factor in
bringing about a State-wide demand for a competent
centralized supervisory and advisory road and bridge
authority. In deference to this demand the State
legislature in 1911 provided that the State engineer
of roads and highways at the State Agricultural
College should furnish, free of charge, technical or
other advice to all local road and bridge officials
applying therefor.

In 1917 legislation was enacted creating a State
highway commission with limited State-wide juris-
diction over certain groups of roads and supervisory
powers to a limited degree over all road and bridge
work in the nature of substantial improvements
made throughout the State. The county systems
comprising the main traveled roads of each county
have been selected for improvement under the
direction of the commissioner, and these systems
have been selected to form a network of roads con-
necting all of the principal towns of the State.

Kansas has a road mileage of 111,052, of which at
the close of 1916, 1,400 miles, or 1.3 per cent, had
been surfaced, although many miles of earth roads
had been graded and drained. The expenditures

for road and bridge work during the year 1916
comprised $10,000 expended by the State highway
department for educational and supervisory work,
and $5,610,000 expended by local officials subject
to supervision by the State highway department as
was requested by the local officials in charge of the
work. The total State and local expenditure during
1917 amounted to $6,010,000.

With the organization of the State highway com-
mission and the allotment of Federal funds to a
system of 3,440 miles of main highways and the
supervision of Federal aid projects by the commis-
sion, the influence.of capable centralized authority
will be manifested in better types of improvement,
more attention to maintenance, and a_ greater
popular demand for an increased mileage of good
roads. :
ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the road forces of the State
and the relation existing between them is shown on
page 42.

State.—The State highway commission, com-
posed of the Governor and two members appointed
by him for terms of four years each, has power to
employ, remove, define the duties and fix the com-
pensation of such employees as may be necessary
to carry out the duties imposed by law. It has
general supervision over the administration of all’
State road and bridge laws, and over the construc-
tion and maintenance of all roads, bridges, and
culverts throughout the State except the administra-
tion of township roads not in receipt of Federal aid.

The commission is required to establish and fur-

nish to the several county engineers plans and
specifications for all road, bridge, and culvert con-
struction in the State; to reply to all inquiries from
local road officials relative to road and _ bridge
matters; to require reports on standard forms from
all county and township road. officials; to devise
a uniform system of auditing and accounting, and
enforce its use by all county and township fiscal
officials engaged in road and bridge work.
The commission is empowered to act as agent
for the several counties in negotiations conducted
with the United States Secretary of Agriculture in
matters relating to allotment of Federal funds.

The State highway engineer, the executive official
of the commission, is chosen by them and serves
at their pleasure.

County.—County road and bridge affairs are
administered by a board of three commissioners
elected for terms of four years each. The county
clerk and county treasurer, elective officials, are
respectively the clerk and fiscal agent of the board.
The county engineer, selected by the board with the
approval of the State highway commission for a
term of two years, is their executive official in all

road and bridge matters. He is subject to the rules
and regulations issued by the State highway com-
mission relative to road and bridge matters, and
may be removed from office by the county commis-
sioner for cause or by the State highway commis-
sion for incompetency. In addition to his other
duties, he acts in a supervisory and advisory capac-
ity with township road and bridge officials.
Township.—The board of township highway
commissioners composed of the town trustee, clerk,
and treasurer, each elected for a term of two years,
has charge of all work in the township financed with
township funds. The board is required to appoint
a township road overseer and may, if the county

PEOPLE
LEGISLATURE

ert ees

Township Roads.—All roads of the State not |

included in the preceding system are classed as
township roads and are improved and maintained
by township officials with township funds. All
contracts let by township boards for construction
which exceed $200 in amount and all contracts for
purchases of machinery exceeding $100 in amount
require the approval of the county engineer.

Roads of either group may be improved by order
of the governing board or improvements may be
initiated on petition of 51 per cent of the owners of
35 per cent of the land abutting on the road in
question, or 35 per cent of the landowners owning
51 per cent of the land or by the owners of 60 per

COUNTY & TOWNSHIP

GOVERNOR

TESTS

AGRICULTURAL f- — —
LEGE

FEDERAL AID ROADS

oh
moe
m

: SS

STATE HIGHWAY ENGINEER |

SECRETARY

BRIDGE ENGINEER

ROAD ENGINEER

ENGINEERS ENGINEERS

engineer deems it necessary, provide him with
suitable assistants.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The 111,052 miles of public road in Kansas are
by law divided into county and township roads.

County Roads.—The county board of each
county is required to select, with the approval of
the State highway engineer, not less than 50 miles
nor more than 15 per cent of their total road mileage
as a road system to be improved by the county in
accordance with plans and specifications approved
by the State highway engineer. When the total
mileage selected in a county has been improved,
additional roads may, with the approval of the com-
mission, be added to the system. On January 1, 1918,
3,440 miles of road had been selected and approved.

CLERICAL FORCE

COUNTY ENGINEER

FOREMEN-—CONTRACTORS
LABORERS

ROADS

CONVICT LABOR

STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSION =——{ atte, |

ACCOUNTS & BRIDGES
ADVISORY

|
| |
GOUNTY ROADS & BRIDGES |

BOARD OF GOUNTY COMM'RS ©

TOWNSHIP ROADS & BRIDGES

TOWNSHIP BOARD
OF HIGHWAY COMM’RS

PRISONERS

LABORERS

cent of the land within a given district. The
petition is addressed to and filed with the county
board. The board after finding it to be a public

utility orders plans, specifications, and estimates of .

cost of the improvement to be prepared by the
county engineer or the State highway engineer.
The plans must be approved by the State highway
engineer, and, if Federal aid is requested, by the
United States Secretary of Agriculture.

The work may be done by prison labor with the
approval of the warden of the State penitentiary,
by force account under the direction of the county
engineer, or by contract let by the county board in
the manner prescribed by statute. The work
during progress is under the supervision of the
county engineer and is subject to inspection by the
State highway engineer.

TOWNSHIP ROAD OVERSEER ‘

FOREMEN — CONTRACTORS

KANSAS

Partial payments covering 70 per cent of the
completed work may be made by the county board
when based on an estimate prepared and approved
by the engineer in charge and by the State highway
engineer if Federal funds are involved. The road
when completed is maintained by the county at
county expense. The State highway commission
is required to inspect or cause to be inspected yearly
all roads financed in part with Federal funds; to
inform the county commissioners of the repairs
needed, if any, and to require the county board to
make the repairs. The total cost of the road is
borne as follows: All bridges costing more than
$2,000 and all bridges of 20-foot or more span are
paid for by the county. From the remainder of the
cost the Federal allotment, if any, is deducted and
the balance of the cost is apportioned 50 per cent
to the county, 25 per cent to the township or
townships, and 25 per cent among the: landowners
adjoining or adjacent to the road so improved.

The county board may under certain conditions
- assume 60 per cent of the remaining cost, leaving 15
per cent to be borne by the landowners.

If more than 30 miles of road are involved and a
majority of the legal voters of the county so approve,
the total cost of the work less Federal aid extended,
if any, may be borne by the county as a whole.

REVENUES,

State.—An appropriation of $25,000 per year
for the support of the State highway commission
is made by the State legislature. No other State
funds are provided for road and bridge work either
directly or indirectly.

‘County.—Federal funds allotted to the State
are apportioned equally among the several counties
conditioned on the county providing $85 for each
$15 allotted, and further provided that the total
sum shall be expended in acéordance with the rules
and regulations of the United States Secretary of
Agriculture.

A road tax at a rate of not less than one-fourth
mill nor greater than 14 mills may be levied by the
county board for the construction and maintenance
of the county road system. A tax rate greater than
14 mills may, if authorized by a majority vote of
the legal voters of the county, be levied by the board.
Fifty per cent of the net receipts collected in each
county for the registration of motor vehicles is
placed in the county road fund?

Township.—A tax at a rate of not to exceed 3
mills may be levied by the county board on favor-
able recommendation of the township board. Taxes
at arate greater than 3 mills may be levied whenever
authorized by a majority of the voters of the town-
ship. All male inhabitants between the ages of 21
and 50 are required to pay a poll tax of $3, or in leu

thereof to labor two days on the public roads. Poll .
tax collected in cities is refunded to the city treasury.

Fifty per cent of the net receipts collected in each
county for the registration of motor vehicles is
returned to the townships in which the owners
reside, and placed to the credit of the township

road fund.
BONDS.

Serial bonds of not less than 10 nor more than 20
years’ term, bearing not to exceed 5 per cent interest,
may be issued by county boards to finance road and
bridge improvement when. authorized by a majority
vote of the county or of a special district, as the
case may be.

RENTU Ghar

Development.—State participation in road and
bridge improvement in Kentucky began in 1821 and
by 1837 the State had invested $2,509,473 in an
improved road system, of which 343 miles had been
constructed of macadam and 236 miles were under
construction, and a large number of earth roads had
been graded and drained. This work was under the
supervision and control of a State highway engineer
who received a salary of $5,000 per year, and who
was assisted by a well-paid force of competent men.
State aid was from this date diminished and finally
discontinued prior to the Civil War and remained
inactive until revived in principle by the appoint-
ment in 1912 by a State commissioner of public
roads with educational and advisory duties.

In 1914, authority for the selection and designa-
tion of a State highway system and a fund for
assistance in its construction under the supervision
of the State commissioner of public roads was pro-
vided by the legislature.

Due in great part to the substantial nature of the
roads constructed in early days under State super-
vision, public interest in road improvement did not
entirely lapse with the discontinuance of State
assistance, and at the resumption of State aid in
1914, 10,663.5 miles or 18.4 per cent of the entire
road mileage of the State had been surfaced and
were in fair condition; limestone, macadam, and
gravel being the principal materials used.

Under the present law, State aid is extended to
assist the counties in the construction of the State
system of roads. This system when completed will
have a mileage of about 8,000, or 13 per cent of
the total mileage of the State. On January 1,
1917, 1,611 miles of road of this group had been
improved or reconstructed while 13,400 miles, or
23.2 per cent of the total road mileage of the State
had been surfaced.

The State highway commissioner in addition to
the supervision of the expenditure of State funds

also on request of local officials exercises super-
vision over projects financed with local funds.
During 1916, $708,346 of State funds and $1,740,187
of local funds were expended by or under his super-
vision. The total $2,448,553 comprises 554 per
cent of $4,448,553, the total expenditure by all
road and bridge forces of the State during the same
period. The total expenditure from all sources
during 1917 amounted to $4,923,651.

ORGANIZATION.

The organization of the road forces of the State
and the relation existing between them is shown
on page 45.

State.—The department of public roads is
headed and administered by a State commissioner
of public roads appointed by the Governor for a
term of four years. He is required to be at least
25 years of age, a graduate civil engineer from some
reputable university or technical college and shall
have had five years experience in civil engineering.
All road and bridge work in the State financed
wholly or in part with Federal or State funds, or
constructed by State convict labor is under the
general supervision of, and must be completed in
accordance with the plans and specifications ap-
proved by, the commissioner.

Engineermg and technical assistants necessary
to carry out the duties of the department are selected
by the commissioner with the approval of the
governor. The State, for administrative purposes,
is divided into 11 divisions, each in charge of a
division engineer who consults with and tenders
advice to county road officials, and who has
supervisory charge of State and Federal aid con-
struction.

County.—County road and bridge affairs are as a
rule administered in the 120 counties by fiscal
courts composed of the county judge and a magis-
trate from each magisterial district of the county.
There are a few counties in which road affairs are
administered by three or more commissioners who
are elected by the people. All of the above officials
are elected for terms of four years.. The county
clerk is clerk to the governing body and the county
treasurer is fiscal agent.

The governing body of the county may appoint as
county engmeer one who is required to be either a
reputable civil engineer or a man who has had two
years practical experience as a road }uilder and
who shall have passed an examination held by the
State commissioner or his representative. He
serves as the executive official of the county in all
road and bridge matters and receives general in-
structions from the State commissioner relative to
standards and types of construction, gradients, etc.,
of all public roads and for plans for all bridges
costing $500 or more.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE.

The 57,916 miles of public road in Kentucky are
divided, for the purpose of fixing responsibility
for construction, control, and maintenance, into
two general groups, namely, State-aid highways
and county roads.

State-Aid Highways.—At present these com-
prise a system of intercounty-seat highways selected

by the governing bodies of the respective counties

with the approval of the State commissioner of
public roads. This system comprises about 8,000
miles of road connecting county seats constructed
under State supervision at the joint expense of the
State and county. Of this system about 2,000
miles had been completed or under contract on
January 1, 1918. State aid is at present restricted
to roads of this group. However, on completion
of the present mileage additions may be made to
the system’ by agreement between the county
boards and the State commissioner.

Initiative for improvement of roads of this group
is taken by the fiscal town or county board. The
resolution of the court or board is transmitted to
the State commissioner of public roads for his in-
vestigation and approval. If the project is deemed
feasible, within the extent of the law and the neces-
sary funds are available, the surveys, plans, speci-
fications, and estimates are prepared by the State
highway department, the cost being paid one-half
by the State and one-half by the county. Con-
struction may be executed. by State convict labor,
operating under the direction of the commissioner,
or the county board may, after due publicity, let
the work by contract, except on Federal-aid projects,
which are let by the State highway department.
All contracts for road and bridge work and all
bonds filed by the contractors are required to bear
the approval of the State commissioner of public
roads,

The work during progress is under the general
supervision of the State highway department, the
county engineer, and the immediate supervision
of an inspector appointed by the State commis-
sioner. Monthly payments, covering 80 per cent
of the completed work, may be authorized by the
county board when supported by an estimate pre-
pared and certified to by the inspector, and ap-
proved by the county engineer.

On completion and acceptance of the work and
the presentation of certified statements of cost by
the inspector and county engineer, the State com-
missioner orders the State auditor to draw a war-
rant against the State road fund in favor of the
county. The State assumes 75 per cent of the
cost of construction of intercounty-seat roads in
counties whose assessed valuation is less than
$5,000,000; 70 per cent of the cost in counties
having an assessed valuation between $5,000,000

rant Be

perm Ob HE

cen Fam ee Hm

(msi (nd ae at

Fae orth Wma

ee ce ey eh 4

and $6,000,000; 65 per cent of the cost in counties
having an assessed valuation between $6,000,000
and $8,000,000; 60 per cent of the cost in counties
having an assessed valuation between $8,000,000
and $12,000,000; 55 per cent of the cost in counties
having an assessed valuation between $12,000,000 and
$16,000,000 and 50 per cent of the cost in all counties
having an assessed valuation of $16,000,000 or more.

The State may pay in all counties 50 per cent of
the cost of construction of roads added to the
State-aid system but which are not intercounty-
seat roads. All cost incident to the preparation of
plans, surveys, inspection, etc., is considered a part
of the total cost of the work, and is borne equally
by the State and counties.

construction and repair, or the roads of the county
may be divided into sections not exceeding 2 miles
in length and sold for maintenance purposes for
yearly periods to the lowest bidder.

REVENUES.

State.—The State road fund for aid to the State-
aid system is apportioned among the various coun-
ties of the State applying therefor, in the ratio that
the amounts collected in each county for road pur-
poses, including the interest on bonded indebtedness
incurred for road purposes and all donations bear
to the total collection made by all counties. No
county may receive more than 2 per cent of the
fund in any one year, and counties expending an

PEOPLE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
GOVERNOR

KENTUCKY

LOCAL

STATE (AID)HIGHWAYS

STATE COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC ROADS

BRIDGE ENGINEER

— |

ROAD ENGINEER |

DRAFTSMEN

STENOGRAPHERS

DIVISION ENGINEERS J]

INSPECTORS

FOREMEN— CONTRACTORS

ACCOUNTANT

DRAFTSMEN |

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

LOCAL. ROADS
COUNTY FISCAL COURT
OR *

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS

|~- ADVISORY

COUNTY ROAD ENGINEER +

FOREMEN QVERSEERS

HIRED LABOR

CONVICT LABOR

Roads of this group, when improved, are main-
tained by and at the expense of the county, but.if
the counties fail to maintain the roads, State aid
may be withheld or State-aid funds apportioned to
the county may be used by the commissioner in
executing maintenance.

County Roads.—All other public roads of the
State, with a total mileage of about 50,000, are in-
cluded in this group. On January 1, 1917 about
12,000 miles, or 24 per cent of this system had been

surfaced.
All expense incident to the construction, repair,

and maintenance of these roads is borne by the
county. County jail or workhouse labor, statutory
labor, or force account labor may be used in their

HIRED LABOR . }

+ APPOINTMENT APPROVED BY STATE COMM’R

STATUTE LABOR |

* BOARD IN TywvQ COUNTIES

CONVICT LABOR

amount greater than the amount required to allow
them to share in State aid may receive the differ-
ence as aid during the succeeding years without
providing additional funds, provided that the allot-
ment so received be expended for road work under
the supervision of the State commissioner.

This fund is composed of revenues raised from the
following sources, and it is estimated that during the
calendar year 1918 the following amounts will be
produced:

(1) A 33 mill State-wide tax............- $600, 000

(2) Net receipts from motor-vehicle fees.. 300, 000

(3) Whisky tax (one-eleventh of 10 cents
ofeach pallon)t poets: i SSS 50, 000
A OCS Steere tsa ee ee cei coatci aes Se 950, 000

An amount not exceeding $25,000 to defray the
expenses of the State department of public roads
is set aside from the State fund before making allot-
ments to the counties.

County.—Current revenues are obtained from
an ad valorem tax levied at a rate not to exceed
50 cents on each $100 of taxable property, one-half
of which may be used for road purposes. A poll
tax may be levied for road purposes on male inhabi-
tants over 21 years of age at rates which vary in
the different counties. These funds are expended
by the fiscal court or other governing body for all
county purposes, including road and bridge expense.
Six days statutory labor on the roads may be re-
quired of all able-bodied male citizens between the
ages of 18 and 45, but this tax is not generally
observed.

The fiscal court may authorize counties to vote
on an additional tax of 20 cents on the $100 valua-
tion for road purposes. |

BONDS.

Bonds for road and bridge purposes bearing not
to exceed 5 per cent interest, payable semiannually,
may be issued by the governing boards of counties
for a term not less than 5 nor more than 30 years,
when authorized by a majority vote of the electors
of the county voting at a special election held for
that purpose.

The proceeds of the bond issue are administered
by the fiscal court, or by a board of commissioners
appointed by the fiscal court or elected by the
voters at the special election authorizing the bond
issue.

The bonds may after five years be retired at the
pleasure of the court, or board, or the sinking fund
provided for their redemption may be invested in
real estate mortgages. On January 1, 1915 there
was outstanding a total of $705,000 of road and
bridge bonds issued by the counties. Several coun-
ties have issued bonds since that date, and it is now
estimated that there are outstanding $5,525,000 of
road and bridge funds.

LOUISIANA.

Development.—State participation in highway
improvement in Louisiana was first manifested in
1909 by cooperation between the board of State
engineers, the board of control of the State peni-
tentiary, and the police juries of various parishes
in the supervision and use of State convicts for road-
building purposes. In 1910 a State highway depart-
ment was organized and the distribution of State

aid in the form of money aid, use of convict labor, | —
or machinery under the supervision of the State .

highway department was made a permanent State ;

policy.
The State highway department is under the super-

vision of the board of State engineers, which has —

charge of all engineering work financed by the State. —

Prior to 1909 little permanent road improvement
had been attempted throughout the State, but with

the organization of the State highway forces and —

the dissemination of the correct principles of road
building improvement in the condition of the road
became apparent, and on January 1, 1917, 2,400
miles, or 9.8 per cent of the entire road mileage of
the State, had been surfaced.

A State-wide system comprising about 5,000 miles

of road connecting parish seats and important

commercial centers has been selected by the State
highway department for improvement by means of
Federal, State, and parish funds under the super-
vision of the State highway department. On

January 1, 1918, 752 miles, or 15 per cent of this —

system, had been improved.

The expenditures for road and bridge purposes
during 1916 were $184,533 of State funds and
$274,111 of local funds, expended by or under the
supervision of the State highway department, and

an additional amount of $3,000,000 of local funds |

expended by the police juries of the various parishes.
State supervision thus extended to 13.9 per cent of
the total expenditure. The total State and local
expenditures during 1917 amounted to $3,540,976.

ORGANIZATION,

The organization of the road forces of the State
and the relation existing between them is shown
in the accompanying diagram.

State.—The State highway engineer selected
by the board of State engineers serves at its pleasure
and is the executive official in charge of the State
highway department. Such assistants as may be
required by him are appointed by the board. The
board of State engineers is required to consider all
questions of general policy of the highway depart-
ment and the conduct of its work and to bring to the
attention of the governor of the State all matters
pertinent to appropriations, new legislation, etc.

The State highway engnieer, subject to the general
supervision of the board of State engineers, is vested
with broad powers over the contributions made by
the State for highway improvement, the standards
of contruction of state work, and certain local work
involving the expenditure of $2,000 or more, and

the selection and designation of a system of state |

highways upon which State aid may be extended.
He is required to extend advice and technical assist-
ance to local officials on their request.
Parishes.—The parishes of Louisiana correspond
in size, organization, and powers to the counties of

ed am re NN tl A I 5 eI N E T RM 8 I AN EERIE A Hm

CONVICT LABOR

BOARD OF CONTROL Le
STATE PENITENTIARY

STATE HIGHWAYS

STATE HIGHWAY ENGINEER

CH’F DRAFTSMAN

ASSISTANT
COMPUTERS

other States. Their affairs are administered by a
police jury consisting of an elective member from
each of the wards into which each parish is divided.
The members elect one of their number as president
and employ a nonmember as secretary. The parish
treasurer is their fiscal officer. The parish surveyor,
appointed by the governor, who is not required to
be a civil engineer or a parish highway engineer,
may on the order of the police jury be employed on
local road work. The police jury has jurisdiction
over all road and bridge work in the parish financed
with local funds, may levy taxes, issue bonds, and
in all respects is a body politic.

District.—The police juries of the several parishes
may, in accordance with the statutory restrictions,
divide their parishes into road districts. Such dis-
tricts are governed by the police jury or by a road
committee selected by it. All expenditures involvy-
ing $2,000 or more in road and bridge work may
not be made until the plans and specifications there-
for have been approved by the board of State engi-
neers. The districts may participate in State aid
under the same terms as the parish, except that
they deal through the police juries.

CLASSIFICATION, CONTROL, AND PROCEDURE,

The 24,563 miles of public road in Louisiana are,
for the purpose of fixing responsibility for construc-
tion, control, and maintenance, divided into two
groups, namely, State highways and parish roads.

State highways comprise about 5,000 miles of

PEOPLE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
GOVERNOR

ALL STATE ENGINEERING WORK

BOARD OF STATE ENGINEERS

LOUISIANA

LOCAL ROADS

@< BRIDGES

ADVISORY AND APPROVAL OF
CONTRACTS OVER $2000

ADVISORY

ASS'T STATE HIGHWAY ENGINEER

ENG’R CONSTRUCTION

ENGINEER ASSISTANT
FOREMEN-— CONTRACTORS
CONVICT LABOR

ENGR MAINTENANCE

|
|

PARISH POLICE JURY

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
RESIDENT ENGINEERS

PARISH SURVEYOR
OR ENGINEER

SURVEY PARTIES
OVERSEERS— FOREMEN

HIRED LABOR STATUTE LABOR } HIRED LABOR

the principal roads of the State, selected by the State
highway engineer on the approval of the board of
State engineers, for improvement with State and
local funds. Initiative for construction or improve-
ment of a road of this group is taken by the police
jury of the parish by making written application for
aid to the State highway engineer. When the appli-
cation has been approved by the State highway
engineer and the board of State engineers, an engi-
neer is detailed to execute surveys and prepare
plans, specifications, and estimates of cost. The sal-
ary of the engineer thus engaged is borne by the
State. Other expense incident to the survey is borne
by the local body.

State aid may consist of money aid up to 50 per
cent of the total cost of improvement, dependent,
however, on the funds available at the disposal of
the State highway department; convict labor fur-
nished by the State with the approval and under
the rules and regulations of the general manager of
the State penitentiary, the operating expense of this
force being borne by the local body or board bene-
fited; or of machinery furnished by the State and
operated at the expense of the local board or body.
If the cost of improvement is less than $2,000, and
it is decided to execute the work by paid labor, it is
discretionary with the State highway engineer as to
whether contract shall be let or whether force ac-
count shall be used. If the cost is more than $2,000,
the State highway engineer, after due publicity
given in the vicinity of the proposed improvement,

(47)

may, with the concurrence of the local boards inter-
ested, let the contract to the lowest responsible bid-
der. The work during progress is under the inspec-
tion and supervision of a representative of the State
highway engineer. Partial payments covering 80
per cent of the completed work may be authorized
by the State highway engineer at monthly intervals.
Final payment is made on acceptance of the com-
pleted work by the State highway engineer.

Completed roads of this group are maintained
under the supervision of the State highway engineer
with State and local funds in the same proportions
as for construction.

State aid may not exceed $50,000 in any parish in
one year if other parishes apply for aid during that
period, neither may a parish obtain aid for two
consecutive years unless all other parishes applying
for aid are supplied.

Parish Roads.—These comprise all other public
roads of the State. They are improved and main-
tained by and at the expense of the parish. The
State highway department exercises no jurisdiction
over the improvement and maintenance of roads of
this group, but may on request of the officials in
charge furnish plans and specifications for and
advise concerning their improvement and mainte-

nance.
REVENUES.

State.—Revenues for State aid in construction
and maintenance of State roads and for support of
the State highway department are derived from the
imposition of a State-wide tax levied at the rate of
one-fourth mill on each $1 of taxable property.
This tax produced during the calendar year 1917
about $140,000, of which -about $20,000 was ex-
pended for the support and maintenance of the State
highway department.

Parish.—The funds for road and bridge purposes
are derived from various sources, namely:

1. A tax levied at the rate of 1 mill on each $1 of
assessed valuation. This rate may be exceeded
provided that the total tax for parish purposes
does not exceed 10 mills on each $1 of assessed
valuation.

2. By transfer of the surplus from the general
fund of the parish. 3

3. By the imposition of an annual license tax on
all vehicles except automobiles.

4. By the imposition of a special tax when
authorized by a majority vote of the property tax
payers elegible to vote in the parish. ‘The tax rate
and the purpose for which the proceeds may be
used are specified in the proposal submitted to the
voters.

5. The net receipts of the State tax on motor
vehicles collected and returned by State authority
to the parish treasurer.

6. By a per capita tax of $1 per year levied on 4

all male inhabitants between the ages of 18 and 45
and not otherwise legally exempt.

7. By bond issues when authorized by a majority
in numbers and valuation of the property-owning
voters.
bonds under similar regulations as parishes.

BONDS.

}

ra
¢

Districts may levy special taxes or issue

Bonds may be issued in an amount not exceeding |
10 per cent of the assessed valuation by parishes or —
districts when authorized by a majority in numbers —
and assessed valuation of the property-owning ~

voters.

The term of such bonds may not exceed 40 —

years and the rate of interest may not exceed 5 per |

cent and the bonds must be sold at par.

Bonds —

must be retired annually beginning at a date not —

later than 5 years from the date of issue. The
amount of bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915,
for road and bridge purposes was $1,588,835.26.

* MARYLAND’ MOTOR TAX IDEA.

hoy

Maryland finds it necessary to insist upon taxing ;

motor trucks from other States which use her roads,

because, it is argued, reciprocity arrangements with —

other States were made to cover the comparatively _
light passenger cars, and with the revolution in |

motor traffic there must be a revision of charges.

This is pointed out as a concrete illustration of the
change which has come over the whole question of
motor transportation within the last few years.

Ite

regards the change as a permanent one, and says _

that if there are not freight highways built especially
for this heavy business there will have to be a great
broadening and rebuilding of existing motor routes.

~ SOME STATE HIGHWAY BUILDERS.

(Continued from page 22.)

field in 1916, on account of the unsettled condition
of the country.

Upon returning to Georgia he was employed by
the highway department, and in October, 1917, was
elected State highway engineer.

The highway commissioner of Washington, James
Allen, was born in Kentucky, at Lexington, in 1871.
He moved to the State of Washington in 1888 and
has been actively engaged in engineering work in
the West ever since. In 1908 Mr. Allen became
connected with the State highway department, was
made chief engineer in December, 1913, and in
March, 1916, was appointed State highway commis-
sioner by Gov. Lister. He was reappointed to the
office in December, 1917, for the term ending Decem-
ber 10, 1921.

Oe a ee a ld

eee eye se

Printing
January 12, 1895.

NOT E.—Application for the free
apy of the Division of Publications,
D. C. Applicants are urgently requested to ask only for those publications in which
they are particularly interested.
plete sets, nor to send free more than one copy of ee publication to any one person.
| The editions of some of the publications are necessarily
| ment’s free supply is exhausted and no funds are available for procuring additional
copies een are referred to the Superintendent of Documents, Government

ce, this city, who has them for sale at a nominal price, wnder the law of
Those publications in this list, the Department supply of which is
exhausted, can only be secured by
who is not authorized to furnish publications free.
the name of the series as well as the number of the publication should be given, as
“ Bureau of Public Roads Bulletin No. 32.”

ROAD PUBLICATIONS OF BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS.

ublications in this list should be made to the
. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,

é Department can not undertake to supply com-

limited, and when the Depart-

urchase from the Superintendent of Documents,
In applying for these publications

REPORTS.

Report of the Director of the Office of Public Roads for 1916.
Report of the Director of the Office of Public Roads for 1917.

*Bul. 28.
2.
the

“ail.

*43.
*45,

48.

136

314.
347.
*348.

370.

373.
386.

387.
388.
389.
390.
393.
407.
414.
463.
532.

537.

555.

583.
586.
660.

| Dept. Bul. *53.
105.

| 220,

230.
249.

257.
*284.

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS BULLETINS.

The Decomposition of the Feldspars (1907).
Public Road Mileage Revenues and Expenditures in

10c.

United States in 1904. 15c.

Examination and classification of Rocks for Road
Building, including Physical Properties of Rocks
with Reference to Their Mineral Composition and
Structure.

Highway Bridges and Culverts.

Data for Use in Designing Culverts and Short-span
Bridges.

Repair and Maintenance of Highways (1913).

(1911.) 5c.
(1912.) 5c.

(1913.) 15e.

DEPARTMENT BULLETINS.

Object-Lesson and Experimental Roads and
Bridge Construction of the U. S. Office of
Public Roads, 1912-13. 5c.

Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Pre-
vention and Road Preservation, 1913.

Highway Bonds.

Descriptive Catalogue of Road Models of Office
of Public Roads.

Oil Mixed Portland Cement Concrete.

Portland Cement Concrete Pavements for Coun-
try Roads.

Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Pre-
vention and Road Preservation, 1914.

Construction and Maintenance of Roads and
Bridges, from July 1, 1913, to December 31,
1914. 10c.

Methods for the Examination of Bituminous
Road Materials.

Methods for the Determination of the Physical
Properties of Road-Building Rock.

Relation of Mineral Composition and Rock
Structure to the Physical Properties of Road
Materials. 10c.

The Results of physical Tests of Road-Build-
ing Rock.

Brick Roads.

Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the
Middle Atlantic States.

Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the
Southern States.

Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the New
England States.

Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the
Central, Mountain, and Pacific States, 1914.

Public Road Mileage in the United States. A
summary.

Economic Surveys of County Highway Im-
provement.

Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Pre-
vention and Road Preservation, 1915.

Convict Labor for Road Work.

Earth, Sand-Clay, and Gravel Roads.

The Expansion and Contraction of Concrete
and Concrete Roads. .

The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building
Rock in 1916, including all Compression
Tests

Standard Forms for Specifications, Tests, Re-
ports, and Methods of Sampling for Road
Materials,

Report on Experimental Convict Road Camp,
Fulton County, Ga. ; :

Progress Reports ot Experiments in Dust Pre-
vention and Road Preservation, 1916.

Highway Coat Keeping.

*Department supply exhausted

670. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building
Rock in 1916 and 1917.

691. Typical Specifications for Bituminous Road
Materials.

704. Typical Specifications for Nonbituminous Road
Materials.

724, Drainage Methods and Foundations for County
Roads.

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS CIRCULARS.

Progress Report of Experiments with Dust Preventa-
tives, 1907.

Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention,
Road Preservation, and Road Construction, 1908. 5c.

Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention and
Road Preservation, 1909. 5c.

Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1910. 5c.

Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1911.

Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1912. 5e.

Typical Specifications for Fabrication and Erection of
Steel Highway Bridges. (1913.) 5c.

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY CIRCULARS.

Citn Sa.
*90.

"92.
*94,

98.

SOU.
*100.

Sec. Cir. *49. a Vehicle Registrations and Revenues, 1914.
rtd
52. State Highway Mileage and Expenditures to Janu-
ary 1, 1915.
59. Automobile Registrations, Licenses, and Revenues

in the United States, 1915.

Factors of Apportionment to States under Federal
ad Road Act Appropriation for the Fiscal Year

917.

State Highway Mileage and Expenditures to Janu-
ary 1, 1916.

Rules and Regulations of the Secretary of Agricul-
ture for Carrying out the Federal Aid Road Act.

Width of Wagon Tires Recommended for Loads of
Varying Magnitude on Earth and Gravel Roads.

Automobile Registrations, Licenses, and Revenues
in the United States, 1916.

State Highway Mileage and Expenditures for the
Calendar Year 1916.

Experimental Roads in the Vicinity of Wash-
ington, D. C.

FARMERS’ BULLETIN.
F. B. 338. Macadam Roads.
505. Benefits of Improved Roads.
597. The Road Drag.

YEARBOOK SEPARATES.

62.

63.
65.
72.
73.
74.
de

Y. B. Sep. *638. State Management of Public Roads; Its Devel-
opment and Trend. 5c.
*712,. Sewage Disposal on the Farm.
727. Design of Public Roads.
739. Federal Aid to Highways.

REPRINTS FROM THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH

oc.

Effect of Controllable Variables Upon the
Penetration Test for Asphalts and
Asphalt Cements.

Telation Between Properties of Hardness
and Toughness of Road-Building 1 ock.

Apparatus for Measuring the Wear of
Concrete Roads.

A New Penetration Needle for Use in
Testing Bituminous Materials.

Tests of Three Large-Sized leinforced-
Concrete Slabs under Concentrated
Loading.

Influence of Grading on the Value of
Fine Aggregate Used in Portland
Cement Concrete Road Construction.
15ec.

Toughness of Bituminous Aggregates.

Tests of a Large-Sized Reinforced-Con-
crete Slab Subjected to Eccentric
Concentrated Loads.

*Department supply exhausted.

Vol. 5, No. 17, D-2.

5, No. 19, D-3.
5, No. 20, D-4.
5, No. 24, D-6.
6, D-8.

Vol.
Vol.
Vol.

Vol. 6, No.

*Vol. 10, No. 5, D-12.

Vol. 10. No. 7, D-13.
Vol. 11, No 10, D-15.

ah “=
“=e. ON rT

Ne a

THE PEACE OF UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER

Let us not be diverted or deceived by any premature or persuasive pleas there or here
for a negotiated peace. There can be but one peace with a robber, an assassin, a rapist, and
that is the peace of unconditional surrender.

But if our job is a big one, we are big enough for it. By this time next year we shall
have four million more men on the western front, and I have the full confidence that with
such a force we will plow through the German defenses to such point as we need to go. I know
that our soldiers will do it if we sustain them. In their ‘name I appeal to every American
citizen to strip for war as they have stripped—to lay aside every weight of indulgence or
comfort that encumbers or delays, to assemble every resource of possession, of body, and of
mind, and to deliver the mighty blow of a hundred million freemen against the thrones of
autocracy which are already tottering to their fall.

Let me express a bit of sentiment that I hope may be of some comfort to those who dread
to read the daily casualty lists. I observed in the Boston Post recently a rather striking
statement: :

War always takes the bravest and best of a nation. Somehow it seems
that the very ones who have made so much of life, the happy warriors, the
shining, lovable, knightly souls are the first to fall. Perhaps it 1s because
death has marked them for his own—that in the Eternal Kingdom there are
favored places for the chosen of earth, and because they, whom the world
has loved so well, are the sacrifices only a brave people can make.

In a literal and earthly sense that is true, but in a higher and spiritual sense it is not true.
You may recall that the first man to fall in the Spanish-American War was Ensign Bagley, of
North Carolina. I well remember how, as a southern man, I thrilled at the realization that
a State which in my childhood was at war with the Union had then contributed freely of its
choicest in the Nation’s cause. I was at Raleigh, N. C., a short time ago and I saw Bagley—
not in the flesh, but in marble—on the State House Square, and I said Bagley is not dead,
for I realized that he lives in the heart of every North Carolina youth. In Texas not long ago
I witnessed a striking parade at the beginning of the Red Cross drive. The most commanding
figure in it was a handsome young woman accoutered as Joan of Arc riding a white horse, and
I said, Joan of Arc is not dead but she lives and lifts the heart of every girl in the world.
So I like to feel that Edith Cavell, the martyr nurse, is not dead, but in robes of white moves
among the battling Britons whether they stand with their backs to the wall or swarm forward
across the fields of Flanders. The French who fell at Verdun are not dead but are leading
the hosts of their countrymen in another advance across the Marne. The sons of Italy who
were betrayed in Italia Irridenta are not dead, but are back across the Alps inspiring their
comrades to heroic defense and fresh offense. Your son who may fall in France will only give
to the purifying earth his worn and soiled garments of clay and rise in shining garments to be
by your side every day that you live. There is no death. What we call death is only a process
of life. The thousands that seem to give their lives in this world war will not have died. They
will return and will inspire us to erect a purer and nobler temple of civilization. .

CLARENCE OUSLEY,
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

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Full text of "Public Roads: A Journal of Highway Research, Vol. 1, No. 5"

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